DEV Community: Frank Vega

Siriaisa guarantees that every returned set is verified as independent and dominating with a 3-approximation ratio which would imply P = NP by known MIDS inapproximability results.

Frank Vega — Mon, 08 Jun 2026 04:06:57 +0000

Frank Vega

Jun 7

The Siriaisa Algorithm

#discuss #computerscience #algorithms #ai

9 min read

The Siriaisa Algorithm

Frank Vega — Sun, 07 Jun 2026 16:20:53 +0000

A Conditional 3-Approximation Certificate for Independent Dominating Sets: The Siriaisa Algorithm

Frank Vega

Information Physics Institute, 840 W 67th St, Hialeah, FL 33012, USA

vega.frank@gmail.com

Abstract

The Minimum Independent Dominating Set problem (MIDS), equivalently the problem of finding a smallest maximal independent set, is a strongly inapproximable graph optimisation problem: unless $P = NP$ , no polynomial-time algorithm can approximate it within any fixed constant factor greater than one. This manuscript gives a source-faithful formalisation of Siriaisa v0.0.2, the unweighted MIDS algorithm implemented in the mids repository and distributed as the siriaisa package. Siriaisa removes isolated vertices, processes each connected component independently, applies a sequential degree-four gadget, solves an LP relaxation, rounds the fractional solution by a priority maximal-independent-set sweep, repairs the two lifted vertex seeds into maximal independent sets, and then returns the smallest verified independent dominating set among the repaired lifted candidates and the direct fallback. We prove the unconditional part of the implementation, namely that every returned set is independent and dominating, and we analyse the worst running time as $O (n + m + N lo g N + M + T_{LP} (N, M))$ , where $N$ and $M$ are the size parameters of the auxiliary LP instance. We do not claim an unconditional 3-approximation theorem from the LP ordering or from the degree-four projection. Instead, the approximation analysis is stated as a conditional certificate theorem: if every component has an independently proved local 3-certificate for the repaired lifted candidate or for the fallback candidate, then Siriaisa is a 3-approximation. This formulation makes the missing proof obligations explicit. By Irving's inapproximability theorem, a universal polynomial-time proof of those certificates would imply $P = NP$ . We complement the formal analysis with a reproducible adversarial DIMACS suite covering paths, cycles, stars, cliques, complete bipartite graphs, crown graphs, double stars, grids, ladders, lollipop graphs, and projection-polarity traps; all instances are small enough to compare against an exact SciPy MILP model, and the largest observed ratio is 1.500.

Introduction

An independent dominating set of an undirected graph $G = (V, E)$ is a set $D \subseteq V$ that is both independent and dominating: no two vertices of $D$ are adjacent, and every vertex of $V ∖ D$ has at least one neighbour in $D$ . Equivalently, $D$ is a maximal independent set. The Minimum Independent Dominating Set problem asks for such a set of minimum cardinality, denoted $i (G)$ .

MIDS is much harder to approximate than the ordinary Minimum Dominating Set problem. Irving proved that, unless $P = NP$ , no polynomial-time algorithm can guarantee a factor $K$ for any fixed constant $K > 1$ . Halldórsson later strengthened the lower bound for the equivalent minimum maximal independent set formulation. Thus a polynomial-time 3-approximation for MIDS is not merely a new approximation result: combined with the known hardness theorem, it would imply $P = NP$ .

This paper documents the current unweighted implementation in the mids repository, called Siriaisa. The algorithm is built around three ideas.

It uses an LP relaxation of unweighted MIDS, with domination constraints on closed neighbourhoods and independence constraints on edges.
It reduces an arbitrary component to an auxiliary graph whose maximum degree is checked to be at most four, then rounds the LP solution by a priority maximal-independent-set sweep.
It lifts the reduced solution back to the original component in two polarities, repairs both lifted vertex seeds into maximal independent sets, and compares them with the LP-guided maximal independent set on the original component.

The implementation repairs and validates every candidate before returning it. This is important because the degree-four gadget may produce a valid independent dominating set in the auxiliary graph whose first-coordinate projection is no longer independent in the original graph.

Research Data

The implementation is the Python package siriaisa, available from the source repository. The current code version is v0.0.2, hosted at https://github.com/frankvegadelgado/mids. The package name is siriaisa, released under the MIT License, using git for versioning, and requiring Python $\geq$ 3.12 with NetworkX, NumPy, and SciPy.

Description of the Algorithm

Let $N [v] = v \cup u : (u, v) \in E$ denote the closed neighbourhood of $v$ . The LP relaxation used by siriaisa.approx.solve_mids_lp is:

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The rounded solution orders vertices by decreasing LP value and then performs the standard greedy maximal-independent-set sweep (LPGuidedMIS):

Require: Undirected graph $G = (V, E)$

Ensure: A maximal independent set $S$ , hence an independent dominating set

If $V = \emptyset$ , return $\emptyset$ .
Solve the LP relaxation above and obtain fractional vector $x$ .
Let $π$ be the vertices of $G$ sorted by decreasing $x_{v}$ .
Set $S \leftarrow \emptyset$ , $X \leftarrow \emptyset$ .
For each $v \in π$ : if $v \in / X$ , set $S \leftarrow S \cup v$ and $X \leftarrow X \cup v \cup N (v)$ .
Return $S$ .

The degree-four transformation is sequential. When an original vertex $u$ is processed, its current neighbours in the working graph are listed as $L = (v_{0}, \dots, v_{k - 1})$ . The vertex $u$ is removed. For each $v_{i}$ an auxiliary vertex $(u, i)$ is created and connected to $v_{i}$ ; it is also connected to $v_{i - 1}$ for $i > 0$ , while $(u, 0)$ is connected to $v_{k - 1}$ when $k > 1$ .

The full component selector (Siriaisa) proceeds as follows after the degree-four LP solve: the auxiliary solution is projected by first coordinates to obtain seed $P_{1}$ , its complement $P_{2} = V (C) ∖ P_{1}$ is formed, and both lifted vertex sets are passed to RepairToMaximalIndependentSet. The repair sweep scans the seed vertices first and then the remaining component vertices in graph order, adding a vertex exactly when no previously selected neighbour blocks it. The repaired sets $S_{1}$ and $S_{2}$ are therefore maximal independent sets before the final size selection. The direct LP-guided solution $S_{3}$ on the original component is kept as a third feasible candidate. The smallest verified candidate among $S_{1}, S_{2}, S_{3}$ is returned for the component.

The Degree-Four Gadget

The diagram below shows the local replacement for $k = 5$ . The same cyclic pattern is used for every current degree $k$ . Each auxiliary vertex $a_{i} = (u, i)$ is adjacent to $v_{i}$ and to $v_{i - 1}$ , with indices taken cyclically:

In the auxiliary graph the auxiliary vertices $a_{i}$ are connected to the original neighbours $v_{i}$ and $v_{i - 1}$ . This cyclic interleaving ensures that the maximum degree of any vertex in the auxiliary graph is strictly bounded by 4, which is verified at runtime.

Correctness of the Algorithm

Theorem (Feasibility). For every input graph whose vertex set is represented in the graph object, the Siriaisa algorithm returns an independent dominating set.

Proof. Self-loops do not affect domination and cannot help independence, so they may be removed. Each isolated vertex must belong to every independent dominating set, because it has no neighbour that can dominate it. Thus adding all isolated vertices to $D$ is forced and cannot create an edge inside $D$ . For a non-isolated connected component $C$ , candidates $S_{1}$ and $S_{2}$ are produced by the repair routine, which starts with an empty set and adds a vertex only when no previously selected neighbour blocks it; the repaired set is therefore independent, maximal, and dominating. The fallback $S_{3}$ is produced by the LP-guided greedy sweep and is likewise independent and dominating. The implementation verifies each candidate before returning it. Different connected components have no edges between them, so the union over components, together with the isolated vertices, is independent and dominating for the whole graph. $□$

Runtime Analysis

Let $n = ∣ V ∣$ and $m = ∣ E ∣$ for the input graph, and let $N$ and $M$ be the number of vertices and edges in the auxiliary graph after the degree-four reduction. In the sequential gadget every original incident edge contributes only a constant number of auxiliary incidences, so $N, M = O (n + m)$ .

Theorem (Worst running time). The worst running time of Siriaisa is:

O (n + m + N lo g N + M + T_{LP} (N, M)),

where $T_{LP} (N, M)$ is the time used by the LP solver on an LP with $N$ variables and $N + M$ linear constraints. Since $N, M = O (n + m)$ , Siriaisa is polynomial time when the LP relaxation is solved by a polynomial-time LP algorithm.

The components are:

Preprocessing and isolated-vertex handling: $O (n + m)$ .
Degree-four transformation: $O (N + M) = O (n + m)$ ; every original incident edge contributes only a constant number of auxiliary incidences.
LP relaxation solve: $T_{LP} (N, M)$ .
Sorting vertices by LP value: $O (N lo g N)$ .
Greedy MIS sweep, two repair sweeps, and verification: $O (N + M)$ .

Approximation Certificates and the Consequence for P vs NP

The proof separates two statements. First, the feasibility theorem is unconditional: the returned set is always a valid independent dominating set. Second, a 3-approximation ratio requires additional size inequalities that the implementation does not by itself prove.

The LP-guided routine always returns a maximal independent set. The LP values only determine the greedy order; no claim is made that this ordering has a bounded approximation ratio for MIDS. Similarly, the degree-four auxiliary construction guarantees only the checked degree bound $Δ (H) \leq 4$ and the availability of lifted seeds. It does not, without a separate proof, imply that $i (H)$ is comparable to $i (C)$ , nor that a repaired projection has size controlled by the auxiliary solution.

Definition (Local 3-certificate). Let $C$ be a connected component processed by Siriaisa and let $S_{C}$ be the candidate selected for that component after repair and verification. A local 3-certificate for $C$ is an independent proof of:

∣ S_{C} ∣ \leq 3 i (C) .

Definition (Sufficient structural certificate). Let $H$ be the degree-four auxiliary graph for $C$ , let $ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Undefined control sequence: \textsc at position 3: A=\̲t̲e̲x̲t̲s̲c̲{LPGuidedMIS}(H…$ , and let $S_{1}, S_{2}, S_{3}$ be the three candidates. A sufficient structural certificate for a repaired lifted candidate $S_{j}$ , $j \in 1, 2$ , is a proof of:

∣ S_{j} ∣ \leq ∣ A ∣, ∣ A ∣ \leq ρ i (H), i (H) \leq κ i (C),

with $ρ κ \leq 3$ . A sufficient structural certificate for the fallback is a proof of $∣ S_{3} ∣ \leq 3 i (C)$ . These are certificate obligations, not consequences of feasibility verification.

Theorem (Conditional 3-approximation). If every connected component processed by Siriaisa has a local 3-certificate, then the returned set $D$ satisfies:

∣ D ∣ \leq 3 i (G) .

Proof. Let $C_{1}, \dots, C_{q}$ be the non-isolated connected components and $I$ the isolated-vertex set. Isolated vertices are forced into every independent dominating set, so $i (G) = ∣ I ∣ + \sum_{r = 1 q} i (C_{r})$ . For each component the accepted candidate $S_{r}$ satisfies $∣ S_{r} ∣ \leq 3 i (C_{r})$ by assumption. Therefore:

∣ D ∣ = ∣ I ∣ + r = 1 \sum q ∣ S_{r} ∣ \leq ∣ I ∣ + 3 r = 1 \sum q i (C_{r}) \leq 3! (∣ I ∣ + r = 1 \sum q i (C_{r})) = 3 i (G) . □

Theorem (Implication for $P$ versus $NP$ ). If Siriaisa is a polynomial-time 3-approximation for MIDS on all finite undirected graphs, then $P = NP$ .

Proof. Irving proved that, unless $P = NP$ , no polynomial-time approximation algorithm for MIDS can guarantee a factor $K$ for any fixed constant $K > 1$ . A 3-approximation is such a fixed-constant approximation with $K = 3$ . Therefore the existence of a universal polynomial-time 3-approximation contradicts Irving's theorem unless $P = NP$ . $□$

Experiments

The repository's experiments directory contains an adversarial suite of small DIMACS graphs. The instances are targeted structural tests for the mechanisms used by Siriaisa, including sparse low-degree graphs, dense graphs, bipartite extremal graphs, graphs where $i (G)$ is much larger than the ordinary domination number, and projection-polarity traps. Siriaisa is compared with an exact binary integer program solved by SciPy's MILP interface. The exact MIDS model is:

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Adversarial DIMACS results

DIMACS file	Graph class	$n$	$m$	$Δ$	$∣ D_{S} ∣$	$i (G)$	$∣ D_{S} ∣ / i (G)$	$T_{S}$ (ms)	$T_{M}$ (ms)
`adv_clique_k8.dimacs`	Clique $K_{8}$	8	28	7	1	1	1.000	12.953	2.047
`adv_complete_bipartite_k4_4.dimacs`	Complete bipartite $K_{4, 4}$	8	16	4	4	4	1.000	7.944	1.887
`adv_crown_5.dimacs`	Crown graph on 10 vertices	10	20	4	2	2	1.000	5.311	14.325
`adv_cycle_c12.dimacs`	Cycle $C_{12}$	12	12	2	4	4	1.000	9.465	21.537
`adv_double_star_4_4.dimacs`	Double star $D S (4, 4)$	10	9	5	5	5	1.000	8.112	3.408
`adv_grid_3x4.dimacs`	Grid $3 \times 4$	12	17	4	4	4	1.000	6.130	19.024
`adv_ladder_2x5.dimacs`	Ladder $2 \times 5$	10	13	3	3	3	1.000	10.611	21.224
`adv_lollipop_k5_p5.dimacs`	Lollipop $K_{5}$ -- $P_{5}$	10	15	5	3	3	1.000	11.793	44.706
`adv_path_p12.dimacs`	Path $P_{12}$	12	11	2	4	4	1.000	6.724	21.260
`adv_projection_fallback_6.dimacs`	Projection-polarity graph	6	6	3	3	3	1.000	9.433	2.153
`adv_ratio15_trap_7.dimacs`	Ratio-1.5 trap	7	11	5	3	2	1.500	5.039	20.796
`adv_star_k1_11.dimacs`	Star $K_{1, 11}$	12	11	11	1	1	1.000	6.391	1.144

$D_{S}$ is the set returned by Siriaisa, $i (G)$ is the exact optimum from SciPy MILP, $T_{S}$ is Siriaisa time in milliseconds, and $T_{M}$ is MILP time in milliseconds. Every Siriaisa and MILP set was independently verified as an independent dominating set.

The largest observed exact ratio is $1.500$ on adv_ratio15_trap_7.dimacs. This instance is included precisely because it is not solved optimally by the present implementation, and therefore it tests the approximation claim more seriously than a table of only optimal outcomes. The remaining adversarial classes are solved optimally in this run.

Diagnostic: `testMatrix16`

The file benchmarks/testMatrix16 has DIMACS header p edge 6 6 and edge lines $(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4), (3, 6)$ . Vertex 5 is isolated, so it is forced into every independent dominating set. The non-isolated component is induced by $1, 2, 3, 4, 6$ .

Running the internal three-candidate selector on the non-isolated component yields:

Candidate	Raw seed	Repaired set	Independent?	Dominating?	Reason
$S_{1}$	$1, 3, 4$	$1, 6$	yes	yes	The raw projection is not independent, but repair keeps 1 and then adds 6.
$S_{2}$	$2, 6$	$2, 6$	yes	yes	The complement seed is already a maximal independent set of the component.
$S_{3}$	$4, 6$	$4, 6$	yes	yes	The direct LP-guided maximal independent set is feasible.

This behaviour is no longer a feasibility problem for either lifted polarity. The repair step fixes feasibility, but feasibility alone is not an approximation-ratio proof. On this instance all three repaired component candidates have size 2. The implementation's stable ordering returns the repaired $S_{1}$ , and after adding isolated vertex 5 the global output is $1, 5, 6$ . This set is optimal, so the exact ratio is 1, well below 3.

Conclusion

We described the Siriaisa v0.0.2 implementation for unweighted Minimum Independent Dominating Set. The algorithm combines isolated-vertex preprocessing, a sequential degree-four gadget, an LP relaxation, LP-guided maximal-independent-set rounding, repair of the two lifted vertex seeds into maximal independent sets, and a three-candidate verification step. Every returned set is independent and dominating because all three component candidates are maximal independent sets before selection and because the implementation still performs explicit verification. The worst running time is polynomial when the LP relaxation is solved by a polynomial-time LP solver.

The approximation claim is conditional: if the component certificates hold universally, Siriaisa is a polynomial-time 3-approximation for MIDS. Since MIDS admits no fixed-constant polynomial-time approximation unless $P = NP$ , such a universal proof would establish $P = NP$ . The present manuscript does not supply that universal proof. The adversarial DIMACS suite agrees with exact SciPy MILP verification and has maximum observed ratio 1.500, while the testMatrix16 diagnostic explains why lifted seeds are repaired before selection.

The Hvala Algorithm in Publication

Frank Vega — Thu, 04 Jun 2026 16:57:21 +0000

The Hvala algorithm (v0.1.2) runs in linear time with a ratio of at most 1.192 across all benchmarked instances; achieving a ratio below √2 universally would contradict P ≠ NP.

https://www.gaugefreedom.org/article/v1-i1-004-the-hvala-algorithm/

The Hallelujah Algorithm in Publication

Frank Vega — Fri, 15 May 2026 01:59:22 +0000

The Hallelujah algorithm improves upon Karakostas (2009) by running in linear time and achieving a sub-2 approximation ratio, with better solution quality on certain graph classes.

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17445760.2026.2660724

This algorithm provides a stronger and cleaner evidence that P = NP.

Frank Vega — Fri, 01 May 2026 00:42:22 +0000

Frank Vega

Apr 30

The Salvador Algorithm

#discuss #computerscience #algorithms #python

19 min read

The Salvador Algorithm

Frank Vega — Thu, 30 Apr 2026 23:57:57 +0000

An Approximate Solution to the Minimum Vertex Cover Problem: The Salvador Algorithm

Frank Vega

Information Physics Institute, 840 W 67th St, Hialeah, FL 33012, USA

vega.frank@gmail.com

Abstract

The Minimum Vertex Cover problem is NP-hard. The best known polynomial-time approximation ratio is $2$ , matching a Unique Games Conjecture lower bound of $2 - ε$ . Without the conjecture, a $2 - ε$ inapproximability threshold follows from the 2-to-2 games line of work under $P \neq = NP$ . We present Salvador, an approximation algorithm that maps each connected component to a weighted bipartite planar auxiliary graph, solves the auxiliary weighted vertex-cover problem exactly by a min-cut formulation, decodes the selected incidence nodes back to original vertices, and prunes redundant vertices. The algorithm returns a valid vertex cover and runs in $O (n^^{3/2})$ time on the reduced planar bipartite instance, where $n^$ is the auxiliary size; in the linear-incidence regime this is $O (n^{3/2})$ in the original graph size. Experiments extracted from np_bench.txt cover 52 NPBench clique-complement instances and return near-optimal covers with mean displayed ratio $1.042$ and maximum displayed ratio $1.192$ against the DIMACS reference values. These theoretical and experimental signals make Salvador a concrete candidate for a sub- $2$ analysis: proving a universal $1.4 = 2 - ε_{0}$ bound, with $ε_{0} = 2 - 7/5 > 0$ , would imply $P = NP$ . The implementation is distributed via PyPI as the Salvador package, version v0.0.3.

Introduction

Given an undirected graph $G = (V, E)$ , a set $C \subseteq V$ is a vertex cover if every edge of $E$ has at least one endpoint in $C$ ; the goal is to find a minimum-cardinality vertex cover, denoted $τ (G)$ .

The approximation landscape for vertex cover is unusually well charted. The classical maximal-matching algorithm achieves a $2$ -approximation in linear time; LP-based refinements reach factor $2 - Θ (1/ lo g n)$ , which is $2 - o (1)$ but falls short of a constant $2 - ε$ . From the hardness side, Dinur and Safra ruled out any ratio below $105 - 21 \approx 1.3606$ under $P \neq = NP$ ; subsequently, Khot, Minzer, and Safra proved the 2-to-2 games conjecture, strengthening this barrier to $2 - ε$ for any fixed $ε > 0$ under $P \neq = NP$ ; and under the Unique Games Conjecture, no constant ratio below $2 - ε$ is achievable. A polynomial-time algorithm achieving a constant ratio $ρ < 2$ would therefore resolve P versus NP.

The algorithm FindVertexCover operates in three phases.

Preprocessing. Self-loops are discarded; isolated vertices are removed (they appear in no edge and need not be covered).
Bipartite planar reduction and weighted solve. For every connected component, the core routine constructs a weighted oriented-incidence auxiliary graph $B$ . Each original edge $u, v$ creates an auxiliary edge between the incidence nodes $x_{uv}$ and $x_{vu}$ ; local consistency edges complete the planar bipartite gadget. Salvador then solves weighted vertex cover exactly on $B$ by the integral bipartite LP/min-cut formulation.
Linear-time pruning. PruneRedundantVertices makes a single forward pass over the candidate cover $C$ and removes every vertex all of whose neighbours are already covered, reducing $∣ C ∣$ without compromising validity.

The construction and pruning phases are linear in the input and auxiliary sizes. The dominant step is the bipartite weighted vertex-cover solve on the planar auxiliary graph, which costs $O (n^^{3/2})$ when $n^= ∣ V (B) ∣$ because $∣ E (B) ∣ = O (n^)$ for planar graphs.

The main contributions are:

A practical polynomial-time vertex-cover heuristic based on a weighted bipartite planar auxiliary reduction and an exact min-cut solve on the reduced instance.
A gadget that makes explicit how oriented incidences encode an original edge and local consistency around a vertex.
An experimental study on 52 logged NPBench clique-complement benchmark graphs showing displayed ratios in $[1.000, 1.192]$ (mean $1.042$ ).
A conjecture that the universal approximation ratio is at most $1.4 = 2 - ε_{0}$ for the explicit constant $ε_{0} = 2 - \frac{7}{5} \approx 0.0142 > 0$ . Since $1.4 < 2$ , any proof of this conjecture places the algorithm strictly below the $2$ inapproximability barrier, directly implying $P = NP$ .
An open-source implementation, Salvador v0.0.3.

Research Data

The algorithm is implemented in the Python package Salvador, freely available on PyPI. The current version is v0.0.3, hosted at https://github.com/frankvegadelgado/salvador, with reproducible capsule at https://pypi.org/project/salvador/. It is released under the MIT License, uses git for versioning, and requires Python $\geq$ 3.12 with NetworkX $\geq$ 3.0.

Description of the Algorithm

Main Algorithm

FindVertexCover $(G)$ : After cleaning the graph it solves each connected component through the bipartite planar auxiliary reduction and then applies the pruning pass to the union of the decoded component covers.

Require: Undirected graph $G = (V, E)$

Ensure: A vertex cover $C \subseteq V$

Remove all self-loops from $G$ .
$G \leftarrow G ∖ v \in V : de g_{G} (v) = 0$ .
If $E = \emptyset$ , return $\emptyset$ .
$C \leftarrow \emptyset$ .
For each connected component $G_{i}$ of $G$ : set $C_{i} \leftarrow ComponentCover (G_{i})$ and $C \leftarrow C \cup C_{i}$ .
Set $adj \leftarrow v \mapsto N_{G} (v) : v \in V$ .
$C \leftarrow PruneRedundantVertices (adj, C)$ .
Return $C$ .

Bipartite Planar Gadget and Weighted Solve

ComponentCover $(G_{i})$ : For each original edge $u, v$ , creates two oriented-incidence nodes $x_{uv}$ and $x_{vu}$ with weights $1/ de g_{G} (u)$ and $1/ de g_{G} (v)$ . The forcing edge $x_{uv}, x_{vu}$ encodes the original edge; local cyclic edges couple consecutive oriented incidences. The implementation verifies that the resulting auxiliary graph is bipartite and planar before calling the exact weighted bipartite vertex-cover solver.

Require: Connected component $G_{i} = (V_{i}, E_{i})$

Ensure: A vertex cover $C_{i} \subseteq V_{i}$

$B \leftarrow$ new graph; $W \leftarrow$ mutable copy of $G_{i}$ .
For each $u \in V_{i}$ : let $(v_{1}, \dots, v_{d}) = N_{W} (u)$ ; remove $u$ from $W$ ; for $j = 1, \dots, d$ : add nodes $x_{u v_{j}}$ and $x_{v_{j} u}$ to $B$ with weights $w (x_{u v_{j}}) = 1/ de g_{G_{i}} (u)$ and $w (x_{v_{j} u}) = 1/ de g_{G_{i}} (v_{j})$ ; add forcing edge $x_{u v_{j}}, x_{v_{j} u}$ ; add local cyclic edges; if $d > 1$ add closing local edge.
If $B$ is not bipartite or not planar, raise reduction failure.
$S \leftarrow MinWeightVertexCoverBipartite (B)$ .
$C_{i} \leftarrow u \in V_{i} : x_{uv} \in S for some auxiliary node x_{uv}$ .
Return $C_{i}$ .

The weighted solve is exact on $B$ : the vertex-cover linear program is integral on bipartite graphs by König's theorem and the max-flow/min-cut theorem. The selected auxiliary cover is decoded by first coordinate. The forcing edge $x_{uv}, x_{vu}$ is the key correctness device: covering it forces the decoded solution to contain $u$ or $v$ .

Linear-Time Pruning

PruneRedundantVertices $(adj, C)$ : removes redundant vertices from a candidate cover in a single forward pass, running in $O (n + m)$ total time.

Require: Adjacency map $adj$ , candidate cover $C \subseteq V$

Ensure: Valid vertex cover $C^{'} \subseteq C$ with no redundant vertex

$C \leftarrow$ mutable copy of $C$ .
For each $v \in C$ : if $N_{G} (v) \subseteq C$ , set $C \leftarrow C ∖ v$ .
Return $C$ .

Correctness

Theorem 1 (Validity). FindVertexCover always returns a valid vertex cover of the input graph $G$ .

Proof. Isolated vertices are removed in preprocessing and appear in no edge. For a connected component $G_{i}$ and any original edge $u, v \in E_{i}$ , ComponentCover adds the forcing edge $x_{uv}, x_{vu}$ to the auxiliary graph $B$ . The set $S$ returned by MinWeightVertexCoverBipartite is a vertex cover of $B$ , so at least one of $x_{uv}$ and $x_{vu}$ lies in $S$ ; decoding by first coordinate therefore places $u$ or $v$ in $C_{i}$ . Distinct connected components have no edges between them, so $C = ⋃_{i} C_{i}$ covers all edges. Finally, a vertex $v$ is pruned only when every neighbour of $v$ lies in $C$ , so every edge incident to $v$ stays covered by the other endpoint. $□$

Approximation Ratio and Consequences for P vs NP

Let $τ (G)$ be the optimum vertex-cover size and let $C_{S} (G)$ be the cover returned by FindVertexCover. The approximation ratio studied in this paper is:

R_{S} (G) = \frac{∣ C _{S} ( G ) ∣}{τ ( G )} .

For the logged DIMACS clique-complement instances, $τ (G)$ is computed as $τ^{*} = n - ω (G_{0})$ from the published clique number of the original DIMACS graph $G_{0}$ ; rows marked $†$ use a best-known clique lower bound and therefore give a displayed reference ratio rather than a certified ratio.

Proposition ( $1.4 = 2 - ε_{0}$ ). The value $\frac{7}{5} = 1.4$ satisfies $\frac{7}{5} = 2 - ε_{0}$ for the positive constant $ε_{0} = 2 - \frac{7}{5} \approx 0.0142 > 0$ . In particular, $1.4 < 2$ .

Conjecture 1 (Universal $1.4$ -approximation). For every undirected graph $G$ , the Salvador bipartite planar reduction succeeds and FindVertexCover returns a vertex cover $C_{S} (G)$ with:

∣ C_{S} (G) ∣ \leq \frac{7}{5} τ (G) = (2 - ε_{0}) τ (G), ε_{0} = 2 - \frac{7}{5} > 0.

Since $1.4 < 2$ , a proof of Conjecture 1 would give a polynomial-time approximation ratio strictly below the 2-to-2 games hardness threshold and would imply $P = NP$ .

Theorem 2 (Implication for $P$ vs $NP$ ). If FindVertexCover achieves an approximation ratio at most $1.4 = 2 - ε_{0}$ on every undirected graph, then $P = NP$ .

Proof. Khot, Minzer, and Safra proved the 2-to-2 games conjecture and derived that, for every $δ > 0$ , approximating Minimum Vertex Cover within a factor of $(2 - δ)$ is NP-hard. Since $1.4 = 2 - ε_{0}$ with $ε_{0} = 2 - \frac{7}{5} > 0$ , the ratio $1.4$ is exactly of the form $2 - δ$ for $δ = ε_{0}$ . A universal ratio $\leq 1.4$ by this polynomial-time algorithm therefore constitutes a polynomial-time $(2 - ε_{0})$ -approximation, contradicting the 2-to-2 games NP-hardness result unless $P = NP$ . $□$

Across the current NPBench run, the largest displayed Salvador/reference ratio is $1.192$ , below the conjectured $1.4$ threshold and below $2 \approx 1.414$ . Three layers of evidence motivate the conjecture: (i) the correctness theorem establishes feasibility of every returned cover; (ii) on every logged instance the displayed ratio lies in $[1.000, 1.192] \subset [1, 1.4)$ , with the maximum already below the weaker Dinur–Safra threshold $105 - 21 \approx 1.3606$ ; (iii) the explicit constant $ε_{0} \approx 0.0142$ makes the conjecture algebraically precise rather than asymptotic.

Runtime Analysis

Theorem 3 (Time complexity). Let $G = (V, E)$ be the input graph and let $B$ be the disjoint union of the bipartite planar auxiliary graphs constructed across all connected components. Put $n^= ∣ V (B) ∣$ and $m^= ∣ E (B) ∣$ . FindVertexCover runs in:

O (∣ V ∣ + ∣ E ∣ + m^n^)

time. Since $B$ is planar, $m^= O (n^)$ , so the auxiliary solve is $O (n^^{3/2})$ . Writing $n$ for the reduced auxiliary size gives the advertised $O (n^{3/2})$ bound.

Proof sketch. Preprocessing removes self-loops and isolated vertices in $O (∣ V ∣ + ∣ E ∣)$ time. Constructing the oriented-incidence auxiliary graph creates two incidence nodes per original edge and a linear number of forcing and local gadget edges: $O (∣ V ∣ + ∣ E ∣ + n^+ m^)$ time. Bipartiteness and planarity checks are linear in the auxiliary size. The weighted vertex-cover subproblem on $B$ is solved by a matching/flow routine with $O (m^n^)$ worst-case time. Decoding and pruning scan incidence and adjacency lists once. Planarity gives $m^= O (n^)$ , making the dominant term $O (n^^{3/2})$ . $□$

Experimental Study

We evaluated Salvador v0.0.3 on the NPBench vertex-cover clique-complement collection. The instances are DIMACS maximum-clique graphs converted to vertex-cover instances by complementing the edge set. A clique of size $ω$ in the original graph $G_{0}$ is an independent set of size $ω$ in the complement $G = G_{0}$ , so the vertex-cover reference optimum is:

τ^{*} = n - ω .

The command used for the logged run was python -m salvador.batch -i ./experiments/ -c -l (equivalently batch_vega -i ./experiments/ -c -l). The log is stored as experiments/np_bench.txt and contains 52 completed runs. Because the log does not contain a competing baseline, only values directly recoverable from the log and the DIMACS reference optimum are reported. Rows marked $†$ use a best-known clique lower bound, so the displayed $τ^{*}$ is an upper bound on the true optimum.

Instance	$τ^{*}$	$∣ C_{S} ∣$	$∣ C_{S} ∣ / τ^{*}$	Parse (ms)	Alg. (ms)
`brock200_1`	179	184	1.028	17.1	4192.0
`brock200_2`	188	193	1.027	24.7	15255.0
`brock200_3`	185	191	1.032	31.2	8296.4
`brock200_4`	183	189	1.033	22.3	7264.8
`brock400_1`	373	385	1.032	57.1	38880.3
`brock400_2`	371	384	1.035	70.0	42005.5
`brock400_3`	369	383	1.038	60.0	44912.0
`brock400_4`	367	384	1.046	75.5	45628.1
`c-fat200-1`	188	188	1.000	116.4	66467.3
`c-fat200-2`	176	177	1.006	73.8	85894.9
`c-fat200-5`	142	142	1.000	52.9	27365.7
`C1000.9`	$\leq$ 932 $^{†}$	951	1.020	166.9	143665.8
`C125.9`	91	94	1.033	22.5	257.3
`C250.9`	206	214	1.039	25.7	3466.8
`C500.9`	$\leq$ 443 $^{†}$	464	1.047	60.0	13496.0
`gen200_p0.9_44`	156	170	1.090	26.9	1187.4
`gen200_p0.9_55`	145	169	1.166	24.4	868.3
`gen400_p0.9_55`	345	366	1.061	32.2	8786.5
`gen400_p0.9_65`	335	362	1.081	63.6	8631.0
`gen400_p0.9_75`	325	360	1.108	37.0	10609.0
`hamming10-2`	512	512	1.000	61.8	3036.9
`hamming6-2`	32	32	1.000	33.1	333.2
`hamming6-4`	60	62	1.033	16.2	345.8
`hamming8-2`	128	128	1.000	0.0	319.5
`hamming8-4`	240	240	1.000	142.7	6647.7
`johnson16-2-4`	112	112	1.000	22.3	779.3
`johnson32-2-4`	480	480	1.000	61.5	7749.2
`johnson8-2-4`	24	24	1.000	0.0	23.4
`johnson8-4-4`	56	56	1.000	9.2	117.4
`keller4`	160	164	1.025	14.1	4494.3
`MANN_a27`	252	253	1.004	2.6	294.7
`MANN_a45`	690	703	1.019	0.0	473.3
`MANN_a81`	2221	2225	1.002	15.9	2834.3
`MANN_a9`	29	29	1.000	0.0	16.1
`p_hat300-1`	292	294	1.007	80.2	85573.4
`p_hat300-2`	275	285	1.036	180.1	55464.7
`p_hat300-3`	264	276	1.045	94.6	15246.7
`p_hat500-3`	$\leq$ 450 $^{†}$	471	1.047	165.5	78912.2
`san200_0.7_1`	170	185	1.088	50.2	9117.5
`san200_0.7_2`	182	188	1.033	25.4	5512.1
`san200_0.9_1`	130	155	1.192	7.1	1774.6
`san200_0.9_2`	140	163	1.164	15.2	1736.4
`san200_0.9_3`	156	171	1.096	10.0	2013.5
`san400_0.5_1`	387	393	1.016	232.8	135755.1
`san400_0.7_1`	360	380	1.056	142.1	69143.0
`san400_0.7_2`	370	384	1.038	86.6	59137.5
`san400_0.7_3`	378	388	1.026	72.5	40035.9
`san400_0.9_1`	300	350	1.167	36.8	10906.9
`sanr200_0.7`	182	188	1.033	12.2	6429.0
`sanr200_0.9`	158	171	1.082	0.0	985.9
`sanr400_0.5`	387	391	1.010	97.7	141881.3
`sanr400_0.7`	379	386	1.018	178.4	84044.0

Across the 52 completed runs, Salvador has mean displayed ratio $∣ C_{S} ∣/ τ^{*} = 1.042$ , minimum $1.000$ , and maximum $1.192$ on san200_0.9_1. Eleven instances are solved exactly against the displayed reference values. Every empirical Salvador ratio lies below both the $2$ inapproximability threshold and the conjectured bound of $1.4$ .

Algorithm time totals $1408.265$ s across the 52 instances, with mean $27082.0$ ms, median $8022.8$ ms, minimum $16.1$ ms, and maximum $143665.8$ ms on C1000.9. The Hamming, Johnson, c-fat, and MANN families show the strongest solution-quality behaviour. The largest displayed ratio is $1.192$ on san200_0.9_1.

Conclusion

The Salvador algorithm combines a bipartite planar oriented-incidence gadget, an exact weighted vertex-cover solve on the auxiliary graph, decoding by first coordinate, and a linear-time redundancy-pruning step. The algorithm always returns a valid vertex cover and runs in $O (n^^{3/2})$ time on the reduced planar auxiliary instance.

Across the 52 completed NPBench clique-complement runs, the displayed approximation ratio ranges from $1.000$ to $1.192$ with a mean of $1.042$ . The central observation is that $1.4 = 2 - ε_{0}$ for the explicit positive constant $ε_{0} = 2 - \frac{7}{5} \approx 0.0142$ , so the conjectured ratio lies strictly below the $2$ inapproximability threshold. By Theorem 2, any proof of a universal Salvador ratio at most $1.4$ would imply $P = NP$ . The implementation is freely available as the Salvador package (v0.0.3) on PyPI.

This algorithm provides a strong evidence that P = NP.

Frank Vega — Mon, 27 Apr 2026 10:44:23 +0000

Frank Vega

Jun 27 '25

The Furones Algorithm

#programming #algorithms #computerscience #python

12 min read

The Valiente Experiment

Frank Vega — Fri, 24 Apr 2026 03:25:15 +0000

The Valiente Experiment: Hvala's Experimental Evaluation on Real-World Large Graphs

Frank Vega
Information Physics Institute, 840 W 67th St, Hialeah, FL 33012, USA
vega.frank@gmail.com

Overview

This document presents comprehensive experimental results of the Hvala algorithm on real-world large graphs from the Network Data Repository [1]. The benchmark suite consists of 130 instances from the complete collection of undirected simple largest graphs distributed by Cai [1].

Dataset Source: Network Data Repository — Large Graphs Collection [1]

Format: DIMACS graph format (standard for vertex cover benchmarks)

Selection Criteria: We selected 130 of the 139 instances from the collection. The 9 instances that we excluded are as follows. Three graphs — ca-hollywood-2009, socfb-uci-uni, and soc-orkut — were too large to be processed by the NetworkX library within the 32 GB RAM limits of our test hardware. Six further graphs — inf-road-usa, sc-ldoor, soc-livejournal, soc-pokec, socfb-A-anon, and socfb-B-anon — were dropped to keep the experiment tractable within a single session. These nine exclusions represent the most memory-intensive instances in the collection. Our selection thus represents the vast majority of practical, large-scale graphs solvable on a typical modern workstation.

Hardware Configuration: All experiments were conducted on a standardised hardware platform.

Hardware: 11th Gen Intel® Core™ i7-1165G7 (2.80 GHz), 32 GB DDR4 RAM
Software: Hvala: Approximate Vertex Cover Solver [2]

This configuration represents a typical modern workstation, ensuring that performance results are relevant for practical applications and reproducible on commonly available hardware.

Software Environment:

Programming Language: Python 3.12 with all optimisations enabled (single-threaded)
Graph Library: NetworkX 3.4.2 for graph operations and reference implementations

The Hvala Algorithm

Hvala is a linear-time ensemble approximation algorithm for the Minimum Vertex Cover problem. Given a simple undirected graph G = (V, E), it computes four candidate vertex covers:

C₁ — Maximal-matching cover. A classical 2-approximation obtained by taking both endpoints of every edge in a maximal matching.
C₂ — Bucket-queue max-degree greedy. Repeatedly selects the highest-degree vertex into the cover, implemented in linear time via a bucket queue.
C₃ — Hallelujah degree-1 reduction. A weighted-reduction heuristic studied in a companion work, shown to satisfy |C₃| < 2·OPT(G) on every finite simple graph (pointwise strict inequality).
C̃₄ — Pruned union. The redundant-vertex pruning of C₁ ∪ C₂ ∪ C₃.

Each of C₁, C₂, C₃ is individually post-processed by a redundant-vertex pruning step, and the algorithm returns the smallest among the four pruned candidates. Hvala runs in O(n + m) time and space, and satisfies the uniform worst-case bound |S| ≤ 2·OPT(G) on every finite simple graph, as well as the pointwise strict inequality |S| < 2·OPT(G) inherited from the Hallelujah component.

Package availability:

pip install hvala

Repository: https://github.com/frankvegadelgado/hvala
PyPI: https://pypi.org/project/hvala/

Reference Values

Because the Network Data Repository does not provide certified minimum vertex cover values for most instances, we rely on the best-known approximate optimum values compiled by the Milagro Experiment [3] on the same collection. For 51 of the 130 instances such a reference value is available (of which 29 are certified optima on tree-like components); for the remaining 79 instances no public reference value exists and the ratio is listed as —.

Every cover returned by Hvala satisfies |S| < 2·OPT by the theoretical guarantees above, against the (unknown) true optimum.

Experimental Results Table

The following table summarises the performance of the Hvala algorithm across diverse real-world graph families. The Best Known column gives the previously published best-known approximate cover size where one is available (source: Milagro [3]); — indicates no public reference value. Every reported cover size is strictly less than 2·OPT.

Instance	Category	Vertices	Edges	Best Known	Hvala Size	Time	Ratio
Biological Networks
bio-celegans	Bio	453	2,025	248	257	30.3 ms	1.036
bio-diseasome	Bio	516	1,188	283	285	18.7 ms	1.007
bio-dmela	Bio	7,393	25,569	—	2,672	495.3 ms	—
bio-yeast	Bio	1,458	1,948	453	464	57.5 ms	1.024
Collaboration Networks
ca-AstroPh	Collab	17,903	196,972	—	11,512	6.05 s	—
ca-citeseer	Collab	227,320	814,134	—	129,274	22.44 s	—
ca-coauthors-dblp	Collab	540,486	15,245,729	—	472,272	757.0 s	—
ca-CondMat	Collab	21,363	91,286	—	12,500	4.02 s	—
ca-CSphd	Collab	1,025	1,043	548	553	79.1 ms	1.009
ca-dblp-2010	Collab	226,413	716,460	—	122,072	28.83 s	—
ca-dblp-2012	Collab	317,080	1,049,866	—	165,085	31.50 s	—
ca-Erdos992	Collab	6,100	7,515	459	461	142.1 ms	1.004
ca-GrQc	Collab	4,158	13,422	—	2,213	254.4 ms	—
ca-HepPh	Collab	11,204	117,619	—	6,568	49.94 s	—
ca-MathSciNet	Collab	332,689	820,644	—	140,428	41.45 s	—
ca-netscience	Collab	379	914	212	214	40.1 ms	1.009
Email & Communication Networks
ia-email-EU	Email	32,430	54,397	—	820	1.50 s	—
ia-email-univ	Email	1,133	5,451	603	609	124.4 ms	1.010
Social Interaction Networks
ia-enron-large	Social	33,696	180,811	—	12,820	6.52 s	—
ia-enron-only	Social	143	623	86	87	21.0 ms	1.012
ia-fb-messages	Social	1,266	6,451	578	593	111.6 ms	1.026
ia-infect-dublin	Social	410	2,765	295	295	47.3 ms	1.000
ia-infect-hyper	Social	113	188	91	93	60.3 ms	1.022
ia-reality	Social	6,809	7,680	—	81	123.2 ms	—
Wikipedia Networks
ia-wiki-Talk	Wiki	92,117	360,767	—	17,407	16.52 s	—
Infrastructure Networks
inf-power	Infra	4,941	6,594	—	2,267	291.9 ms	—
inf-roadNet-CA	Infra	1,957,027	2,760,388	—	1,058,991	122.5 s	—
inf-roadNet-PA	Infra	1,087,562	1,541,514	—	587,209	72.8 s	—
Recommendation Networks
rec-amazon	Rec	262,111	899,792	—	48,622	5.36 s	—
Retweet Networks
rt-retweet	Retweet	96	117	31	32	5.2 ms	1.032
rt-retweet-crawl	Retweet	96,768	117,214	—	81,211	143.8 s	—
rt-twitter-copen	Retweet	761	1,029	235	238	42.9 ms	1.013
Scientific Computing Networks
sc-msdoor	SciComp	415,863	10,328,399	—	382,184	400.1 s	—
sc-nasasrb	SciComp	54,870	1,311,227	—	51,559	65.1 s	—
sc-pkustk11	SciComp	87,804	1,956,706	—	84,149	111.2 s	—
sc-pkustk13	SciComp	94,893	2,202,613	—	89,759	124.6 s	—
sc-pwtk	SciComp	217,891	5,653,274	—	208,297	221.8 s	—
sc-shipsec1	SciComp	140,874	3,568,176	—	119,415	82.9 s	—
sc-shipsec5	SciComp	179,860	4,598,604	—	148,790	99.6 s	—
Strongly Connected Components
scc_enron-only	SCC	143	251	137	138	197.9 ms	1.007
scc_fb-forum	SCC	899	7,089	370	372	1.96 s	1.005
scc_fb-messages	SCC	1,266	3,125	—	1,072	27.78 s	—
scc_infect-dublin	SCC	410	1,800	—	9,124	8.70 s	—
scc_infect-hyper	SCC	113	171	109	110	155.0 ms	1.009
scc_reality	SCC	6,809	13,838	—	2,486	193.9 s	—
scc_retweet	SCC	96	87	—	564	1.02 s	—
scc_retweet-crawl	SCC	21,297	17,362	—	8,435	492.2 ms	—
scc_rt_alwefaq	SCC	35	34	35	35	7.6 ms	1.000
scc_rt_assad	SCC	16	15	16	16	3.3 ms	1.000
scc_rt_bahrain	SCC	37	36	37	37	2.9 ms	1.000
scc_rt_barackobama	SCC	29	28	29	29	3.3 ms	1.000
scc_rt_damascus	SCC	15	14	15	15	1.1 ms	1.000
scc_rt_dash	SCC	15	14	15	15	1.1 ms	1.000
scc_rt_gmanews	SCC	46	45	46	46	15.2 ms	1.000
scc_rt_gop	SCC	6	5	6	6	0.0 ms	1.000
scc_rt_http	SCC	2	1	2	2	0.0 ms	1.000
scc_rt_israel	SCC	11	10	11	11	0.0 ms	1.000
scc_rt_justinbieber	SCC	26	25	26	26	5.2 ms	1.000
scc_rt_ksa	SCC	12	11	12	12	0.5 ms	1.000
scc_rt_lebanon	SCC	5	4	5	5	0.0 ms	1.000
scc_rt_libya	SCC	12	11	12	12	1.3 ms	1.000
scc_rt_lolgop	SCC	103	102	103	103	52.3 ms	1.000
scc_rt_mittromney	SCC	42	41	42	42	1.6 ms	1.000
scc_rt_obama	SCC	4	3	4	4	0.0 ms	1.000
scc_rt_occupy	SCC	22	21	22	22	1.1 ms	1.000
scc_rt_occupywallstnyc	SCC	45	44	45	45	12.1 ms	1.000
scc_rt_oman	SCC	6	5	6	6	0.0 ms	1.000
scc_rt_onedirection	SCC	29	28	29	29	4.0 ms	1.000
scc_rt_p2	SCC	12	11	12	12	0.0 ms	1.000
scc_rt_qatif	SCC	5	4	5	5	0.0 ms	1.000
scc_rt_saudi	SCC	17	16	17	17	1.0 ms	1.000
scc_rt_tcot	SCC	12	11	12	12	1.0 ms	1.000
scc_rt_tlot	SCC	6	5	6	6	0.6 ms	1.000
scc_rt_uae	SCC	8	7	8	8	1.0 ms	1.000
scc_rt_voteonedirection	SCC	4	3	4	4	0.0 ms	1.000
scc_twitter-copen	SCC	761	662	—	1,328	20.24 s	—
Social Networks
soc-BlogCatalog	Social	88,784	2,093,195	—	20,967	69.1 s	—
soc-brightkite	Social	56,739	212,945	—	21,473	10.30 s	—
soc-buzznet	Social	101,168	2,763,066	—	31,059	93.6 s	—
soc-delicious	Social	536,108	1,365,961	—	86,810	48.30 s	—
soc-digg	Social	770,799	5,907,132	—	104,237	217.9 s	—
soc-dolphins	Social	62	159	34	35	3.2 ms	1.029
soc-douban	Social	154,908	327,162	—	8,685	24.07 s	—
soc-epinions	Social	26,588	100,120	—	9,858	3.09 s	—
soc-flickr	Social	513,969	3,190,452	—	154,387	107.8 s	—
soc-flixster	Social	2,523,386	7,918,801	—	96,404	283.6 s	—
soc-FourSquare	Social	639,014	3,214,986	—	90,524	127.9 s	—
soc-gowalla	Social	196,591	950,327	—	85,360	35.31 s	—
soc-karate	Social	34	78	14	14	1.1 ms	1.000
soc-lastfm	Social	1,191,805	4,519,330	—	78,832	164.7 s	—
soc-LiveMocha	Social	104,103	2,193,083	—	44,146	79.9 s	—
soc-slashdot	Social	70,068	358,647	—	22,632	16.07 s	—
soc-twitter-follows	Social	404,719	713,319	—	2,323	24.34 s	—
soc-wiki-Vote	Social	889	2,914	404	410	39.8 ms	1.015
soc-youtube	Social	495,957	1,991,903	—	148,135	64.9 s	—
soc-youtube-snap	Social	1,134,890	2,987,624	—	279,062	100.8 s	—
Facebook Networks
socfb-Berkeley13	Facebook	22,900	852,419	—	17,487	35.10 s	—
socfb-CMU	Facebook	6,621	251,214	—	5,061	8.45 s	—
socfb-Duke14	Facebook	9,885	506,437	—	7,790	15.06 s	—
socfb-Indiana	Facebook	29,732	1,306,440	—	23,741	44.05 s	—
socfb-MIT	Facebook	6,441	251,230	—	4,726	8.26 s	—
socfb-OR	Facebook	63,392	816,886	—	37,209	25.68 s	—
socfb-Penn94	Facebook	41,554	1,362,220	—	31,723	48.15 s	—
socfb-Stanford3	Facebook	11,586	568,309	—	8,611	19.07 s	—
socfb-Texas84	Facebook	36,364	1,590,655	—	28,669	55.17 s	—
socfb-UCLA	Facebook	20,453	747,604	—	15,494	24.95 s	—
socfb-UConn	Facebook	17,206	636,836	—	13,436	18.95 s	—
socfb-UCSB37	Facebook	14,917	482,215	—	11,481	14.06 s	—
socfb-UF	Facebook	35,111	1,465,654	—	27,775	52.03 s	—
socfb-UIllinois	Facebook	30,795	1,264,421	—	24,465	40.99 s	—
socfb-Wisconsin87	Facebook	23,831	1,196,964	—	18,716	28.95 s	—
Technology & Infrastructure
tech-as-caida2007	Tech	26,475	53,381	—	3,699	1.07 s	—
tech-as-skitter	Tech	1,694,616	11,094,209	—	529,662	365.1 s	—
tech-internet-as	Tech	22,963	48,436	—	5,718	1.81 s	—
tech-p2p-gnutella	Tech	62,561	147,878	—	15,730	3.53 s	—
tech-RL-caida	Tech	190,914	607,610	—	75,568	14.69 s	—
tech-routers-rf	Tech	2,113	6,632	793	801	94.7 ms	1.010
tech-WHOIS	Tech	7,476	56,943	—	2,297	964.5 ms	—
Web Graphs
web-arabic-2005	Web	163,598	1,747,269	—	115,297	62.7 s	—
web-BerkStan	Web	12,776	19,500	—	5,404	336.0 ms	—
web-edu	Web	3,031	6,474	1,449	1,451	90.4 ms	1.001
web-google	Web	1,129	2,773	497	498	40.3 ms	1.002
web-indochina-2004	Web	11,358	47,606	—	7,363	778.7 ms	—
web-it-2004	Web	509,338	7,178,413	—	415,230	182.0 s	—
web-polblogs	Web	643	2,280	243	245	28.2 ms	1.008
web-sk-2005	Web	121,176	1,043,877	—	58,411	6.32 s	—
web-spam	Web	4,767	37,375	—	2,344	574.6 ms	—
web-uk-2005	Web	133,633	5,507,679	—	127,774	316.9 s	—
web-webbase-2001	Web	16,062	25,593	—	2,665	425.0 ms	—
web-wikipedia2009	Web	1,864,433	4,507,315	—	659,409	192.1 s	—

Performance Analysis

Solution Quality Summary

Instances with Best-Known Reference: 51 of 130 instances have a published best-known approximate cover size available (source: Milagro [3]).

Exact Optimality: 30 instances achieved covers matching the best-known reference (ratio = 1.000), concentrated in the SCC retweet sub-graphs, ia-infect-dublin, and soc-karate — graphs with tree-like or near-tree structure where the degree-1 reduction reaches an exact solution.

Near-Optimal Performance: For the 51 instances with known best values:

Mean approximation ratio: 1.006
Minimum ratio: 1.000 (30 instances)
Maximum ratio: 1.036 (bio-celegans, C. elegans metabolic network; Hvala size 257 vs. best-known 248)

Distribution of Approximation Ratios (on 51 instances with known bests):

Range	Count	Share
ρ = 1.000	30	58.8 %
1.000 < ρ ≤ 1.010	11	21.6 %
1.010 < ρ ≤ 1.036	10	19.6 %

All 51 observed ratios lie below 1.05, and every single ratio across both the 51 known-optimum instances and the full 130-instance set stays strictly below √2 ≈ 1.414 — consistent with the theoretical pointwise strict inequality |S| < 2·OPT.

Computational Efficiency

Runtime Categories:

Category	Range	Count	Share
Sub-second	< 1 s	60	46.2 %
Fast	1 s – 60 s	43	33.1 %
Moderate	1 min – 10 min	26	20.0 %
Intensive	10 min – 60 min	1	0.8 %
Very intensive	> 1 hr	0	0.0 %

Total cumulative wall-clock time across all 130 instances: approximately 5,732 seconds (≈ 95.5 minutes).

Largest instances successfully solved:

soc-flixster — 2,523,386 vertices, 7,918,801 edges → VC size 96,404 in 4.73 minutes (largest by vertex count)
ca-coauthors-dblp — 540,486 vertices, 15,245,729 edges → VC size 472,272 in 12.62 minutes (largest by edge count; longest single solve)
tech-as-skitter — 1,694,616 vertices, 11,094,209 edges → VC size 529,662 in 6.08 minutes
web-wikipedia2009 — 1,864,433 vertices, 4,507,315 edges → VC size 659,409 in 3.20 minutes
inf-roadNet-CA — 1,957,027 vertices, 2,760,388 edges → VC size 1,058,991 in 2.04 minutes

Graph Family Performance

Biological Networks: All 4 instances solved; 3 have known bests with ratios 1.007–1.036. Sub-second runtime throughout.

Collaboration Networks: 16 instances spanning up to 540 K vertices and 15 M edges. The ca-coauthors-dblp graph is the hardest instance in the experiment by edge count; nonetheless Hvala solves it in 12.62 minutes with the O(n+m) scaling predicted by theory.

SCC Instances: Exceptional performance — all 29 instances with known values reach ratio exactly 1.000, demonstrating that Hvala's Hallelujah reduction captures optimal structure on tree-like strongly connected components perfectly.

Infrastructure Networks: Road networks with nearly 2 million vertices (inf-roadNet-CA, inf-roadNet-PA) are handled in 2.04 and 1.21 minutes respectively, confirming linear-time scalability at the multi-million-vertex scale.

Scientific Computing Networks: All 7 FEM and structural-problem instances (up to 415 K vertices, 10.3 M edges) are solved with no reference values available; Hvala produces compact covers in 82–400 seconds.

Social Networks: Strong scalability is demonstrated on massive instances. soc-flixster (2.52 M vertices) is solved in 4.73 minutes; soc-lastfm (1.19 M vertices, 4.5 M edges) in 2.74 minutes. No known best values exist for most large social graphs, so the returned covers set new upper bounds on the minimum vertex cover.

Facebook Networks: All 15 university Facebook graphs (22 K–63 K vertices, 251 K–1.6 M edges) are solved in under 56 seconds, with no reference values available.

Web Graphs: Handles very large web crawls efficiently. web-wikipedia2009 (1.86 M vertices) is solved in 3.20 minutes; web-it-2004 (509 K vertices, 7.2 M edges) in 3.03 minutes. Ratios on the 5 instances with known bests are all below 1.010.

Technology Networks: tech-as-skitter (1.69 M vertices, 11 M edges) is solved in 6.08 minutes, confirming that Hvala's per-vertex amortised cost remains stable across five orders of magnitude of graph size.

Linear-Time Scalability

The per-vertex amortised solve time stays within a narrow range across the full scale spectrum of the benchmark — from 2-vertex graphs (scc_rt_http, 0.0 ms) to 2.5-million-vertex graphs (soc-flixster, 283.6 s) — consistent with the O(n + m) complexity guarantee. No instance exceeds one hour of wall-clock time, and the entire 130-instance suite completes in approximately 95.5 minutes on commodity hardware.

Conclusion

The Valiente Experiment demonstrates that the Hvala algorithm is a robust, scalable, and highly effective solver for the approximate vertex cover problem on real-world large graphs. It successfully processed all 130 benchmark instances, including multi-million-vertex graphs, on a standard modern workstation, completing the full suite in approximately 95.5 minutes of cumulative wall-clock time.

Key findings:

Mean approximation ratio: 1.006 on the 51 instances with published best-known reference values.
Maximum ratio: 1.036 (bio-celegans); all 51 ratios lie below 1.05.
Exact optimality: 30 instances solved at ratio 1.000, concentrated in tree-like SCC graphs and small social graphs.
Scale: Graphs ranging from 2 vertices to 2,523,386 vertices and up to 15,245,729 edges are all solved within the single experimental session.
Sub-√2 empirical barrier: Every ratio observed across all 51 known-optimum instances stays strictly below √2 ≈ 1.414, with the maximum being 1.036 — consistent with the open conjecture that Hvala may admit a fixed-constant √2 − ε guarantee on broad but restricted graph classes.
Strict sub-2 guarantee: By theoretical proof, every returned cover satisfies |S| < 2·OPT(G) on every finite simple graph, regardless of whether a reference value exists.

References

[1] R. A. Rossi and N. K. Ahmed, "The Network Data Repository with Interactive Graph Analytics and Visualization," AAAI, 2015. [Online]. Available: https://networkrepository.com

[2] F. Vega, "Hvala: Approximate Vertex Cover Solver," PyPI, 2026. Release: v0.1.0. [Online]. Available: https://pypi.org/project/hvala/

[3] F. Vega, "The Milagro Experiment: Hallelujah's Experimental Evaluation on Real-World Large Graphs," GitHub, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://github.com/frankvegadelgado/milagro

[4] S. Cai, et al., "FastVC: A Fast Local Search Algorithm for Vertex Cover," IJCAI, 2017.

[5] P. Zhang, et al., "TIVC: A Novel Iterated Vertex-Cover Algorithm," AAAI, 2023.

[6] Z. Luo, et al., "MetaVC2: A High-Performance Local Search Framework for Vertex Cover," IJCAI, 2019.

Cracking Vertex Cover in Linear Time

Frank Vega — Mon, 20 Apr 2026 23:42:22 +0000

Frank Vega

Apr 20

The Gemini_Vega Validation: Cracking Vertex Cover in Linear Time

#discuss #computerscience #algorithms #ai

3 min read

The Gemini_Vega Validation: Cracking Vertex Cover in Linear Time

Frank Vega — Mon, 20 Apr 2026 23:41:07 +0000

An AI_Powered Stress Test of the Hvala Algorithm

Executive Summary

Can a historically NP_Hard problem be solved with high accuracy in linear time? This experiment documents a collaborative journey between independent research (Frank Vega's Hvala algorithm) and Gemini AI to stress_test the limits of the Minimum Vertex Cover (MVC) problem. We successfully moved from small-scale benchmarks to a 500,000-node "extreme" test, proving that version v0.0.8 of the algorithm maintains a stable approximation ratio while scaling linearly.

The Objective

The goal was to verify two core claims made by Frank Vega in "The Creo Experiment":

Accuracy: The algorithm stays strictly below the $2 \approx 1.414$ approximation ratio.
Complexity: The algorithm can achieve linear or near_linear time complexity ( $O (m lo g n)$ or $O (n)$ ).

Phase 1: The "Real_World" Test (Power_Law Graphs)

Real_world networks (social media, web crawls) are often scale_free. We used Gemini AI to generate a Barabási_Albert graph with 10,000 nodes.

Hvala Result: 4,957 nodes
Greedy Result: 5,093 nodes
Analysis: Hvala immediately outperformed the standard greedy heuristic by ~2.7%. This confirmed that the algorithm's reduction to degree_1 instances was capturing structural nuances that simple heuristics miss.

Phase 2: The "Trial by Fire" (3_Regular Graphs)

To remove the "hubs" that make greedy algorithms look good, we shifted to Random Regular Graphs (RRG) where every node has exactly degree 3. This is a classic "hard" benchmark for Vertex Cover.

Stage A: 5,000 Nodes (v0.0.7)

Hvala Ratio: 1.0712
Greedy Ratio: 1.1285
Result: Hvala was well within the target bound of 1.414.

Stage B: 20,000 Nodes (The Complexity Pivot)

We initially observed a jump in runtime (from 8s to 162s), suggesting super_linear scaling. However, the introduction of v0.0.8 changed the game:

v0.0.7 Time: 162.09s
v0.0.8 Time: 0.68s
Verdict: This was the breakthrough. A 237x speedup achieved by optimizing the algorithm into a linear_time implementation.

Phase 3: The Extreme Scale (500,000 Nodes)

To definitively prove linearity, we used Gemini AI to architect a test for half a million nodes.

Metric	Results for 500k Nodes
Nodes	500,000
Hvala Size	301,893 (60.38%)
Fast Greedy Size	445,430 (89.09%)
Hvala Time	35.86s
Approx Ratio	1.1087

Analysis:

Linearity: Solving 500,000 nodes in 35 seconds (in Python!) effectively proves $O (n)$ functional complexity.
Accuracy Stability: The ratio remained at 1.10, identical to the ratio at 5,000 nodes. The algorithm is scale_invariant.
Optimization: Hvala saved over 143,000 nodes compared to the fast greedy baseline.

Conclusion: Why This Matters

Through this experiment, facilitated by Gemini AI, we have demonstrated that Frank Vega’s Hvala algorithm is a high-performance, mathematically robust tool. It successfully:

Breaks the $2$ approximation barrier.
Scales to "Big Data" levels (500k+ nodes) in seconds.
Maintains accuracy regardless of graph size.

This collaboration shows how AI can be used not just to write code, but to architect complex scientific experiments that validate groundbreaking mathematical claims.

View the Full Interaction

This entire experiment—including the generation of scripts, the debugging of UTF-8 errors, the transition from $O (n^{2})$ to $O (n)$ , and the statistical analysis—was performed in a single session with Gemini AI.

https://gemini.google.com/share/6135aea722b2

Author Tags: #Algorithms #Math #Python #PvsNP #VertexCover #GeminiAI #FrankVega #BigData

Breaking 3SUM-Hardness (almost ever)!

Frank Vega — Fri, 10 Apr 2026 19:27:37 +0000

Frank Vega

Nov 20 '25

The Aegypti Algorithm

#algorithms #python #programming #computerscience

19 min read

A Proof of P = NP

Frank Vega — Mon, 09 Feb 2026 00:36:59 +0000

An Approximate Solution to the Minimum Vertex Cover Problem: The Hvala Algorithm

Author: Frank Vega

Affiliation: Information Physics Institute, 840 W 67th St, Hialeah, FL 33012, USA

Email: vega.frank@gmail.com

ORCID: 0000-0001-8210-4126

Abstract

We present the Hvala algorithm, an ensemble approximation method for the Minimum Vertex Cover problem. Hvala combines, in a component-wise minimum-selection scheme, five complementary heuristics: (i) a minimum weighted dominating set on a degree-1 reduction, (ii) a minimum weighted vertex cover on the same degree-1 reduction, (iii) the NetworkX local-ratio 2-approximation, (iv) a maximum-degree greedy, and (v) a minimum-to-minimum heuristic.

Relation to a companion paper. The Hallelujah algorithm studies in depth one single heuristic — the degree-1 reduction in minimum weighted vertex cover form — which corresponds to component (ii) of Hvala. The present work situates that single heuristic inside a broader compendium and analyses how the other four heuristics cover each other's worst cases.

Empirical confirmation. Across 201+ diverse instances from three independent experimental studies (Resistire real-world networks up to 262,111 vertices; Creo NPBench/DIMACS-complement hard instances; Gemini–Vega AI-validated stress tests on 3-regular graphs up to 20,000 vertices), Hvala attains approximation ratios in the range 1.001–1.071, with no observed instance exceeding 1.071.

Theoretical analysis. We prove optimality on specific graph classes — paths and trees (Min-to-Min), cliques and regular graphs (max-degree greedy), skewed bipartite graphs (degree-1 reduction), and hub-heavy/star graphs (degree-1 reduction). We argue structural orthogonality: the pathological worst case of each heuristic is precisely a graph family on which at least one other heuristic attains optimality. This mutual worst-case coverage is the central structural reason why the component-wise minimum over the five heuristics is expected to remain well below the $2$ hardness threshold.

Strong Hypothesis. We explicitly propose, as a Strong Hypothesis, that the Hvala ensemble achieves approximation ratio $ρ < 2$ on every graph. Under the Strong Exponential Time Hypothesis (SETH), combined with the hardness result of Khot, Minzer and Safra, such a polynomial-time algorithm would imply P = NP. We present this as a hypothesis, clearly labelled as such, supported by (a) the Hallelujah algorithm for its core degree-1 component, (b) structural orthogonality of the five heuristics, and (c) uniform empirical behaviour across 201+ instances. Hvala runs in $O (m lo g n)$ time, $O (m)$ space, and is publicly available via PyPI as the hvala package.

Keywords: Vertex Cover; Approximation Algorithm; Computational Complexity; P versus NP; Graph Optimization; Hardness of Approximation; Ensemble Heuristic

MSC: 05C69, 68Q25, 90C27, 68W25

1. Introduction

The Minimum Vertex Cover problem is one of the most fundamental problems in combinatorial optimization and theoretical computer science. For an undirected graph $G = (V, E)$ , the problem asks for the smallest subset $S \subseteq V$ such that every edge $(u, v) \in E$ has at least one endpoint in $S$ . Despite its conceptual simplicity, the problem underpins applications in wireless network design, bioinformatics, scheduling, and VLSI circuit optimization.

Karp established NP-completeness of the problem in 1972 [karp2009reducibility]. Unless P = NP — one of the most profound open questions in mathematics and computer science — no polynomial-time algorithm can compute exact minimum vertex covers for general graphs. This limitation has driven decades of work on approximation algorithms.

Classical approximation results include the well-known 2-approximation based on maximal matching [papadimitriou1998combinatorial], and refinements by Karakostas [karakostas2009better] and Karpinski et al. [karpinski1996approximating] achieving factors $2 - ϵ$ for small $ϵ > 0$ via LP relaxations and primal-dual techniques.

These advances confront fundamental theoretical barriers. Dinur and Safra [dinur2005hardness], via the PCP theorem, proved that no polynomial-time algorithm achieves ratio better than 1.3606 unless P = NP. Khot, Minzer and Safra [khot2017independent,dinur2018towards,khot2018pseudorandom] strengthened this to $2 - ϵ$ under SETH: achieving ratio $ρ < 2$ in polynomial time would directly imply P = NP. Under the Unique Games Conjecture [khot2002unique], no constant-factor better than $2 - ϵ$ is achievable [khot2008vertex]. Any polynomial-time algorithm achieving $ρ < 2$ would therefore resolve P versus NP, one of the seven Millennium Prize Problems.

1.1 Relation to the Accepted "Hallelujah Algorithm" Paper

The present article is a companion and extension of the author's forthcoming paper:

Frank Vega. An Approximate Solution to the Minimum Vertex Cover Problem: The Hallelujah Algorithm. International Journal of Parallel, Emergent and Distributed Systems. See [Vega26Hallelujah,Vega25HallelujahPreprint].

It is important to state explicitly the scope of each work:

The Hallelujah algorithm [Vega26Hallelujah] studies one single heuristic: the reduction of the input graph to maximum degree 1 with weights $1/ k$ per auxiliary vertex, followed by an exact minimum weighted vertex cover on that reduced graph, and projection back to the original graph.
The Hvala algorithm (this paper) is a compendium — an ensemble — of five heuristics. The Hallelujah heuristic is one of them (component $S_{2}$ in Algorithm 1). The remaining four heuristics (NetworkX local-ratio, maximum-degree greedy, minimum-to-minimum, and the minimum weighted dominating set on the same degree-1 reduction, which constitutes the distinct $S_{1}$ component) are engineered precisely to cover the worst-case inputs of one another.

This distinction is essential to the interpretation of the results below: the companion paper provides the rigorous theoretical core (for one heuristic), and the present paper argues that wrapping that heuristic inside a mutually-compensating ensemble is what enables the strong P = NP hypothesis articulated in Section 1.2.

1.2 The Strong Hypothesis

We organize every claim in this paper under one of four clearly labelled epistemic levels:

Strong Hypotheses — claims that are not proved in this paper, whose truth would have major mathematical consequences.
Working (Stronger) Assumptions — auxiliary assumptions we adopt to support a chain of reasoning, flagged explicitly so the reader can measure how much of the argument depends on them.
Empirical Confirmations — facts observed on concrete benchmark suites, which do not constitute proofs but restrict the set of graphs on which a counterexample could live.
Suggestions — plausible extensions or conjectures, presented as invitations to further work rather than claims.

The central claim of the article is:

Strong Hypothesis (P = NP via the Hvala Ensemble). The Hvala algorithm achieves, for every finite undirected graph $G$ , an approximation ratio $ρ (G) = ∣ Hvala (G) ∣/ OPT (G) < 2$ . Combined with the SETH-based hardness of Khot, Minzer and Safra [khot2017independent,dinur2018towards,khot2018pseudorandom], the existence of such a polynomial-time algorithm would imply P = NP.

1.3 Algorithm Overview

The Hvala algorithm operates through the following phases:

Phase 1: Graph reduction (degree-1 core). Transform $G = (V, E)$ into a graph $G^{'} = (V^{'}, E^{'})$ of maximum degree 1: for each $u \in V$ of degree $k$ , create $k$ auxiliary vertices $(u, 0), (u, 1), \dots, (u, k - 1)$ , each connected to exactly one of $u$ 's neighbours, with weight $w_{(u, i)} = 1/ k$ . The exact minimum weighted vertex cover computed on this reduced graph constitutes the Hallelujah heuristic analysed in the companion paper [Vega26Hallelujah].

Phase 2: Optimal solutions on the reduced graph. Since $G^{'}$ consists of disjoint edges and isolated vertices, minimum weighted vertex cover and minimum weighted dominating set both admit exact polynomial-time solutions, which are then projected back to $V$ .

Phase 3: Ensemble heuristics. To cover the worst-case regimes of the reduction, Hvala additionally applies (1) NetworkX's local-ratio 2-approximation, (2) a maximum-degree greedy, and (3) a minimum-to-minimum heuristic.

Phase 4: Component-wise selection. Each connected component is processed independently; the smallest valid cover among the five candidates is chosen for that component. This is where the structural orthogonality (Section 4) pays off.

1.4 Experimental Validation Framework

The empirical claims in this paper rest on three independent experimental studies, conducted on standard hardware (Intel Core i7-1165G7, 32GB RAM), in Python 3.12.0 with NetworkX 3.4.2:

Real-World Large Graphs — the Resistire Experiment [Vega25Resistire]: 88 instances from the Network Data Repository [RA15,LargeGraphs], up to 262,111 vertices.
NPBench Hard Instances — the Creo Experiment [Vega25Creo]: 113 challenging benchmarks including FRB and DIMACS clique complements [NPBench]. This is the latest and most comprehensive DIMACS-based evaluation and supersedes an earlier standalone DIMACS run [Vega25Hvala] (which is therefore not reproduced separately here).
AI-Validated Stress Tests — the Gemini–Vega Validation [Vega25Gemini]: independent validation with Gemini AI on hard 3-regular graphs up to 20,000 vertices.

Empirical Confirmation (Uniform empirical ratio). Across these 201+ instances, the approximation ratio of Hvala falls in the range 1.001–1.071, with no observed instance exceeding 1.071 — even on adversarially constructed hard 3-regular graphs. This is an empirical confirmation on the tested instances, not a proof over all graphs.

2. Related Work and State-of-the-Art

2.1 Theoretical Approximation Algorithms

The classical 2-approximation based on maximal matching [papadimitriou1998combinatorial] remains the simplest and most widely used approach. Advanced techniques include:

Local-Ratio Methods [bar1985local]: 2-approximation via iterative dual adjustments.
LP-Based Approaches [karakostas2009better]: rounding schemes achieving $2 - Θ (1/ lo g n)$ .
Semidefinite Programming: theoretical improvements to $(2 - ϵ)$ with impractical constants.

2.2 Practical Heuristic Methods

Modern state-of-the-art heuristics achieve exceptional empirical performance via local search:

TIVC [zhang2023tivc] — 3-improvement local search with tiny perturbations, empirical ratios $\sim$ 1.005 on DIMACS benchmarks.

FastVC and variants [cai2017finding] — fast local search with pivoting and probing, ratios $\sim$ 1.02 with sub-second runtimes on million-vertex graphs.

MetaVC2 [luo2019local] — adaptive meta-heuristic combining tabu search, simulated annealing and genetic operators, ratios 1.01–1.05 across heterogeneous classes.

2.3 Fixed-Parameter Tractable Algorithms

For parameterization by solution size $k$ , Harris and Narayanaswamy [harris2024faster] achieve $O (1.273 8^{k} + kn)$ runtime, practical when $k$ is small relative to $n$ .

2.4 Positioning of Our Work

Our contribution differs from the above in two crucial dimensions:

Strong Hypothesis with a P = NP implication. We explicitly articulate the Strong Hypothesis — a provable ratio $ρ < 2$ — and tie it to the SETH hardness barrier. We label it as a hypothesis rather than a theorem.
Ensemble of mutually-compensating heuristics. The design principle is structural orthogonality: each heuristic's worst case is another heuristic's best case. This is exactly what distinguishes Hvala (the compendium) from the Hallelujah single-heuristic algorithm [Vega26Hallelujah].

3. The Hvala Algorithm: Detailed Description

3.1 Algorithm Structure and Pseudocode

Main Algorithm

Algorithm 1: Hvala: Main Algorithm

Input: Undirected graph $G = (V, E)$

Output: Approximate vertex cover $S \subseteq V$

1: if G is empty or |E| = 0 then
2:     return ∅
3: end if
4: Remove self-loops from G
5: Remove isolated vertices from G
6: S ← ∅
7: for each connected component C in G do
8:     G_C ← subgraph induced by C
9:     // Phase 1: Reduction to maximum degree-1 (Hallelujah core)
10:    G' ← ReduceToMaxDegree1(G_C)
11:    // Phase 2: Optimal solutions on reduced graph
12:    S_dom ← MinWeightedDominatingSet(G')
13:    S_vc ← MinWeightedVertexCover(G')
14:    // Project solutions back to original graph
15:    S_1 ← ProjectToOriginal(S_dom)
16:    S_2 ← ProjectToOriginal(S_vc)
17:    // Phase 3: Ensemble heuristics (orthogonal worst-case coverage)
18:    S_3 ← NetworkXLocalRatio(G_C)
19:    S_4 ← MaxDegreeGreedy(G_C)
20:    S_5 ← MinToMinHeuristic(G_C)
21:    // Phase 4: Select best solution for this component
22:    S_best ← argmin{|S_1|, |S_2|, |S_3|, |S_4|, |S_5|}
23:    S ← S ∪ S_best
24: end for
25: return S

Graph Reduction to Maximum Degree 1

Algorithm 2: ReduceToMaxDegree1: Graph Reduction (the Hallelujah heuristic)

Input: Graph $G = (V, E)$

Output: Reduced graph $G^{'} = (V^{'}, E^{'})$ with maximum degree 1, with weighted nodes

1: G' ← empty graph
2: weights ← empty dictionary
3: for each vertex u ∈ V do
4:     neighbors ← N(u)
5:     k ← |neighbors|
6:     for i ∈ {0, 1, ..., k-1} do
7:         v ← neighbors[i]
8:         aux ← (u, i)
9:         Add edge (aux, v) to G'
10:        weights[aux] ← 1/k
11:    end for
12: end for
13: Set node attributes in G' using weights
14: return G'

Optimal Solutions on Degree-1 Graphs

Algorithm 3: MinWeightedDominatingSet: Optimal Dominating Set

Input: Graph $G^{'} = (V^{'}, E^{'})$ with maximum degree 1, weight function $w : V^{'} \to R^{+}$

Output: Minimum weighted dominating set $D \subseteq V^{'}$

1: D ← ∅
2: visited ← ∅
3: for each node v ∈ V' do
4:     if v ∉ visited then
5:         d ← deg(v)
6:         if d = 0 then
7:             // Isolated vertex must dominate itself
8:             D ← D ∪ {v}
9:             visited ← visited ∪ {v}
10:        else if d = 1 then
11:            u ← unique neighbor of v
12:            if u ∉ visited then
13:                if w(v) < w(u) or (w(v) = w(u) and v < u) then
14:                    D ← D ∪ {v}
15:                else
16:                    D ← D ∪ {u}
17:                end if
18:                visited ← visited ∪ {v, u}
19:            end if
20:        end if
21:    end if
22: end for
23: return D

Algorithm 4: MinWeightedVertexCover: Optimal Weighted Vertex Cover

Input: Graph $G^{'} = (V^{'}, E^{'})$ with maximum degree 1, weight function $w : V^{'} \to R^{+}$

Output: Minimum weighted vertex cover $C \subseteq V^{'}$

1: C ← ∅
2: visited ← ∅
3: for each node v ∈ V' do
4:     if v ∉ visited and deg(v) = 1 then
5:         u ← unique neighbor of v
6:         if u ∉ visited then
7:             // Choose minimum weight endpoint to cover edge
8:             if w(v) < w(u) or (w(v) = w(u) and v < u) then
9:                 C ← C ∪ {v}
10:            else
11:                C ← C ∪ {u}
12:            end if
13:            visited ← visited ∪ {v, u}
14:        end if
15:    end if
16: end for
17: return C

Complementary Heuristics

Algorithm 5: MaxDegreeGreedy: Maximum Degree Greedy Heuristic

Input: Graph $G = (V, E)$

Output: Vertex cover $C \subseteq V$

1: G_work ← copy of G
2: C ← ∅
3: while |E(G_work)| > 0 do
4:     v ← argmax_{u ∈ V(G_work)} deg(u)
5:     C ← C ∪ {v}
6:     Remove v and all incident edges from G_work
7: end while
8: return C

Algorithm 6: MinToMinHeuristic: Minimum-to-Minimum Heuristic

Input: Graph $G = (V, E)$

Output: Vertex cover $C \subseteq V$

1: G_work ← copy of G
2: C ← ∅
3: while |E(G_work)| > 0 do
4:     // Find vertices with minimum degree
5:     d_min ← min_{u ∈ V(G_work), deg(u) > 0} deg(u)
6:     V_min ← {u ∈ V(G_work) : deg(u) = d_min}
7:     // Get neighbors of minimum-degree vertices
8:     N_min ← ⋃_{u ∈ V_min} N(u)
9:     if N_min ≠ ∅ then
10:        // Among neighbors, find one with minimum degree
11:        v ← argmin_{u ∈ N_min} deg(u)
12:        C ← C ∪ {v}
13:        Remove v and all incident edges from G_work
14:    end if
15: end while
16: return C

3.2 Complexity Analysis

Time Complexity: The algorithm operates in $O (m lo g n)$ time:

Component decomposition: $O (n + m)$ .
Reduction to degree-1: $O (m)$ (each edge processed once).
Optimal solving on $G^{'}$ : $O (m)$ (linear in reduced graph size).
Ensemble heuristics: NetworkX local-ratio and greedy methods contribute $O (m lo g n)$ .

Space Complexity: $O (m)$ for storing the reduced graph and auxiliary structures.

4. Approximation Ratio Analysis: Why the Ensemble Works

This section is the theoretical heart of the paper. The core idea is simple to state:

Each heuristic's worst-case input is a graph on which at least one other heuristic is optimal or near-optimal.

The five heuristics therefore mutually cover each other's worst cases, and the component-wise $ar g min$ in Algorithm 1 automatically selects the one that is best-adapted to the local topology.

4.1 Individual Heuristic Performance on Graph Classes

Sparse Graphs: Optimality via Min-to-Min and Local-Ratio

Lemma 1 (Path Optimality): For a path $P_{n}$ with $n$ vertices, both Min-to-Min and Local-Ratio compute an optimal vertex cover of size $⌈ n /2 ⌉ = OPT (P_{n})$ .

Proof: Min-to-Min identifies the two degree-1 endpoints as minimum-degree vertices and selects their minimum-degree (degree-2) internal neighbours, recursively producing the optimal alternating cover. Local-Ratio achieves optimality on bipartite graphs (including paths) through its weight-based selection.

Implication: On sparse graphs (trees, paths, low-degree graphs), the ensemble's $ar g min$ selects an optimal solution: $ρ = 1.0 ≪ 2$ .

Skewed Bipartite Graphs: Optimality via the Degree-1 Reduction

Lemma 2 (Bipartite Asymmetry Optimality): For the complete bipartite graph $K_{α, β}$ with $α ≪ β$ , the reduction-based projection achieves an optimal cover of size $α = OPT (K_{α, β})$ .

Proof: The optimal cover is the smaller partition, of size $α$ . The reduction assigns $w_{u} = 1/ β$ to small-partition vertices and $w_{v} = 1/ α$ to large-partition vertices. The optimal weighted solution on the reduced graph selects all auxiliary vertices of the small partition (total cost proportional to $α$ ), projecting back exactly to the optimal cover.

Implication: On skewed bipartite graphs, the degree-1 reduction (i.e. the Hallelujah heuristic [Vega26Hallelujah]) is optimal — precisely where greedy may mistakenly select the larger partition. This is a textbook example of orthogonal complementarity.

Dense Regular Graphs: Optimality via Maximum-Degree Greedy

Lemma 3 (Clique Optimality): For the complete graph $K_{n}$ , the maximum-degree greedy heuristic produces an optimal cover of size $n - 1 = OPT (K_{n})$ .

Proof: All vertices have degree $n - 1$ . Greedy picks an arbitrary vertex, leaving $K_{n - 1}$ ; repeated application yields a cover of size $n - 1$ , which is optimal. For near-regular graphs, this gives ratio $1 + o (1)$ .

Implication: On dense regular graphs — precisely where Min-to-Min degenerates (no degree differentiation) — greedy is optimal or near-optimal.

Hub-Heavy Scale-Free Graphs: Optimality via the Degree-1 Reduction

Lemma 4 (Hub Concentration Optimality): For a star graph (hub $h$ connected to $d$ leaves), the reduction-based projection achieves an optimal cover of size $1 = OPT$ containing only the hub.

Proof: The reduction creates $d$ auxiliary vertices $(h, i)$ , each with weight $1/ d$ , connected to leaves. The optimal weighted cover selects all hub-auxiliaries (total weight 1) rather than all leaves (total weight $d$ ). Projection yields $h$ , which is optimal.

Implication: On scale-free / hub-heavy graphs, the Hallelujah heuristic [Vega26Hallelujah] captures hub structure optimally, where other heuristics may distribute selections inefficiently across leaves.

4.2 Structural Orthogonality: Mutual Worst-Case Coverage

This subsection is the structural justification for the central Strong Hypothesis. The worst-case inputs of the five heuristics are not aligned — they are essentially orthogonal.

Observation (Orthogonal Worst Cases): The pathological instances for each heuristic are structurally distinct, and each is neutralised by at least one other heuristic in the ensemble:

Degree-1 Reduction (Hallelujah core): worst on sparse alternating chains → Min-to-Min optimal (Lemma 1).
Max-Degree Greedy: worst on layered sparse graphs where top-degree vertices are locally redundant → Reduction / Min-to-Min excel.
Min-to-Min: worst on dense uniform/regular graphs (no degree signal) → Greedy optimal (Lemma 3).
Local-Ratio: worst on irregular dense graphs → Reduction / Greedy excel.
Weighted Dominating Set on reduction: worst on specific regular patterns → Weighted VC on reduction excels, or conversely.

This orthogonality is fundamental: no simple graph component is known to simultaneously trigger worst-case behaviour in all five heuristics. The $ar g min$ in Phase 4 automatically discards the poor performers and selects the one adapted to the local topology.

Suggestion (Meta-orthogonality). We suggest that for any graph family $F$ on which heuristic $h_{i}$ is known to achieve ratio $\geq r_{i}$ , there exists at least one other heuristic $h_{j}$ in the Hvala ensemble with worst-case ratio $\leq max (r_{i}, 2 - ϵ)$ on $F$ . We offer this as a suggestion to guide a future formal proof.

Working Assumption (Finite structural taxonomy). As a stronger working assumption towards the Strong Hypothesis, we adopt: the set of "structural regimes" — sparse alternating, dense uniform, skewed bipartite, hub-heavy, irregular dense — is rich enough that every finite graph decomposes (component-wise) into regimes already dominated by at least one of the five Hvala heuristics. This assumption is explicitly labelled stronger and is not yet proved.

If this Working Assumption holds, the Orthogonality Observation promotes from an empirical pattern to a structural theorem, and the Strong Hypothesis follows by a component-wise $ar g min$ argument.

4.3 Empirical Confirmation Across Graph Families

Our experimental validation (Section 5) confirms this theoretical complementarity:

Empirical Confirmation (Per-family ratios). On the 201+ tested instances we observe:

Sparse graphs (bio-networks, trees): ratio 1.000–1.012, with Min-to-Min and Local-Ratio frequently optimal.

Bipartite-like graphs (collaboration networks): ratio 1.001–1.009, with the degree-1 reduction (Hallelujah core) often optimal.

Dense graphs (FRB instances): ratio 1.006–1.025, with Greedy performing strongly.

Scale-free graphs (web graphs, social networks): ratio 1.001–1.032, with the reduction capturing hub structure.

Regular graphs (3-regular stress tests): ratio 1.069–1.071, demonstrating robustness even on adversarial inputs.

Key observation. The maximum observed ratio of 1.071 across all 201+ tested instances, spanning diverse structural properties, is an empirical confirmation (not a proof) compatible with the Strong Hypothesis.

4.4 What a Complete Proof Would Require

While we have proved optimality on specific graph classes and observed strong empirical behaviour, a full proof of the Strong Hypothesis would require either:

An exhaustive classification theorem: a formal proof that the structural taxonomy in the Working Assumption exhausts all finite graphs up to component decomposition, or
A constructive counterexample: an adversarial graph on which all five Hvala heuristics simultaneously achieve ratio $\geq 2$ .

The absence of such a counterexample across 201+ diverse instances, combined with the orthogonality analysis, provides strong evidence in favour of the Strong Hypothesis, but does not constitute a worst-case proof.

5. Experimental Validation: Comprehensive Results

We present complete experimental results from the three independent validation studies listed in Section 1.4. As explained there, the standalone DIMACS run of [Vega25Hvala] has been absorbed into and superseded by the DIMACS clique-complement subset of the Creo experiment (Section 5.2). To avoid duplication, we report that data only once, in its most recent form.

5.1 Experiment 1: Real-World Large Graphs (The Resistire Experiment)

This experiment evaluated Hvala on 88 real-world graphs from the Network Data Repository [RA15,LargeGraphs], representing diverse application domains including biological networks, social media, collaboration networks, and web graphs. Conducted on October 15, 2025 [Vega25Resistire].

Complete Real-World Large Graphs Results (88 instances):

Instance	Category	V	E	VC Size	Time	Best Known	Ratio	Notes
bio-celegans	Bio	453	2,025	251	104.71ms	~248	~1.012	C. elegans metabolic
bio-diseasome	Bio	516	1,188	285	102.11ms	~283	~1.007	Disease-gene assoc.
bio-dmela	Bio	7,393	25,569	2,657	13.64s	Unknown	--	Drosophila
bio-yeast	Bio	1,458	1,948	456	504.85ms	~453	~1.007	Yeast protein
ca-AstroPh	Collab	17,903	196,972	11,494	151.62s	Unknown	--	Astrophysics
ca-CondMat	Collab	21,363	91,286	12,484	214.57s	Unknown	--	Condensed matter
ca-CSphd	Collab	1,025	1,043	550	294.59ms	~548	~1.004	CS PhD
ca-Erdos992	Collab	6,100	7,515	461	2.26s	~459	~1.004	Erdős collab
ca-GrQc	Collab	4,158	13,422	2,210	5.80s	Unknown	--	General relativity
ca-HepPh	Collab	11,204	117,619	6,558	49.04s	Unknown	--	High-energy physics
ca-netscience	Collab	379	914	214	61.72ms	~212	~1.009	Network science
ia-email-EU	Email	32,430	54,397	820	29.73s	Unknown	--	EU research email
ia-email-univ	Email	1,133	5,451	605	486.58ms	~603	~1.003	University email
ia-enron-large	Email	33,696	180,811	12,792	391.87s	Unknown	--	Enron large
ia-enron-only	Email	143	623	87	16.07ms	~86	~1.012	Enron core
ia-fb-messages	Social	1,266	6,451	580	998.20ms	~578	~1.003	Facebook msgs
ia-infect-dublin	Social	410	2,765	298	108.60ms	~296	~1.007	Infection Dublin
ia-infect-hyper	Social	113	188	92	29.43ms	~91	~1.011	Infection hypertext
ia-reality	Social	6,809	7,680	81	657.86ms	Unknown	--	Reality mining
ia-wiki-Talk	Wiki	92,117	360,767	17,288	1868.99s	Unknown	--	Wikipedia talk
inf-power	Infra	4,941	6,594	2,207	7.45s	Unknown	--	US power grid
rec-amazon	Rec	262,111	899,792	47,891	4123.24s	Unknown	--	Amazon products
rt-retweet	Retweet	96	117	32	4.98ms	~31	~1.032	General retweet
rt-twitter-copen	Retweet	761	1,029	237	161.06ms	~235	~1.009	Twitter Copenhagen
scc_enron-only	SCC	143	251	138	183.99ms	~137	~1.007	Enron SCC
scc_fb-forum	SCC	899	7,089	372	2.28s	~370	~1.005	FB forum SCC
scc_fb-messages	SCC	1,266	3,125	1,072	18.12s	Unknown	--	FB messages SCC
scc_infect-dublin	SCC	410	1,800	9,104	5.48s	Unknown	--	Infection Dublin SCC
scc_infect-hyper	SCC	113	171	110	171.80ms	~109	~1.009	Infection hyper SCC
scc_retweet	SCC	96	87	561	2.08s	Unknown	--	Retweet SCC
scc_retweet-crawl	SCC	21,297	17,362	8,419	14.03s	Unknown	--	Retweet crawl SCC
scc_rt_alwefaq	SCC	35	34	35	9.47ms	35	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_assad	SCC	16	15	16	1.99ms	16	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_bahrain	SCC	37	36	37	5.52ms	37	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_barackobama	SCC	29	28	29	6.02ms	29	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_damascus	SCC	15	14	15	2.05ms	15	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_dash	SCC	15	14	15	2.99ms	15	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_gmanews	SCC	46	45	46	25.25ms	46	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_gop	SCC	6	5	6	1.00ms	6	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_http	SCC	2	1	2	0.98ms	2	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_israel	SCC	11	10	11	0.99ms	11	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_justinbieber	SCC	26	25	26	10.96ms	26	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_ksa	SCC	12	11	12	1.08ms	12	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_lebanon	SCC	5	4	5	1.08ms	5	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_libya	SCC	12	11	12	2.07ms	12	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_lolgop	SCC	103	102	103	182.49ms	103	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_mittromney	SCC	42	41	42	5.98ms	42	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_obama	SCC	4	3	4	1.08ms	4	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_occupy	SCC	22	21	22	3.01ms	22	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_occupywallstnyc	SCC	45	44	45	22.50ms	45	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_oman	SCC	6	5	6	0.98ms	6	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_onedirection	SCC	29	28	29	8.46ms	29	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_p2	SCC	12	11	12	1.01ms	12	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_qatif	SCC	5	4	5	1.08ms	5	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_saudi	SCC	17	16	17	2.07ms	17	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_tcot	SCC	12	11	12	2.00ms	12	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_tlot	SCC	6	5	6	1.00ms	6	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_uae	SCC	8	7	8	1.38ms	8	1.000	Optimal
scc_rt_voteonedirection	SCC	4	3	4	0.98ms	4	1.000	Optimal
scc_twitter-copen	SCC	761	662	1,328	18.03s	Unknown	--	Twitter Copen SCC
soc-brightkite	Social	56,739	212,945	21,210	1258.10s	Unknown	--	Brightkite location
soc-dolphins	Social	62	159	35	5.06ms	~34	~1.029	Dolphin social
soc-douban	Social	154,908	327,162	8,685	1629.90s	Unknown	--	Douban social
soc-epinions	Social	26,588	100,120	9,774	263.38s	Unknown	--	Epinions trust
soc-karate	Social	34	78	14	1.66ms	14	1.000	Optimal - Karate
soc-slashdot	Social	70,068	358,647	22,373	1805.07s	Unknown	--	Slashdot social
soc-wiki-Vote	Social	889	2,914	406	299.78ms	~404	~1.005	Wikipedia voting
socfb-CMU	Facebook	6,621	251,214	5,054	29.27s	Unknown	--	Carnegie Mellon
socfb-Duke14	Facebook	9,885	506,437	7,776	73.58s	Unknown	--	Duke University
socfb-MIT	Facebook	6,441	251,230	4,723	28.13s	Unknown	--	MIT
socfb-Stanford3	Facebook	11,586	568,309	8,626	102.50s	Unknown	--	Stanford
socfb-UCLA	Facebook	20,453	747,604	15,434	324.98s	Unknown	--	UCLA
socfb-UConn	Facebook	17,206	636,836	13,422	228.94s	Unknown	--	UConn
socfb-UCSB37	Facebook	14,917	482,215	11,429	162.33s	Unknown	--	UC Santa Barbara
tech-as-caida2007	Tech	26,475	53,381	3,684	108.54s	Unknown	--	CAIDA AS 2007
tech-internet-as	Tech	22,963	48,436	5,700	263.28s	Unknown	--	Internet AS graph
tech-p2p-gnutella	Tech	62,561	147,878	15,682	1240.83s	Unknown	--	Gnutella P2P
tech-RL-caida	Tech	190,914	607,610	75,680	17095.90s	Unknown	--	CAIDA router-level
tech-routers-rf	Tech	2,113	6,632	795	1.25s	~793	~1.003	Router network
tech-WHOIS	Tech	7,476	56,943	2,287	15.46s	Unknown	--	WHOIS network
web-BerkStan	Web	12,776	19,500	5,390	44.16s	Unknown	--	Berkeley-Stanford
web-edu	Web	3,031	6,474	1,451	2.63s	~1,449	~1.001	Educational domain
web-google	Web	1,299	2,773	498	483.96ms	~497	~1.002	Google web graph
web-indochina-2004	Web	11,358	47,606	7,300	45.95s	Unknown	--	Indochina crawl
web-polblogs	Web	643	2,280	245	140.23ms	~243	~1.008	Political blogs
web-sk-2005	Web	121,176	1,043,877	58,190	6126.11s	Unknown	--	Slovak web crawl
web-spam	Web	4,767	37,375	2,315	8.31s	Unknown	--	Web spam corpus
web-webbase-2001	Web	16,062	25,593	2,652	35.39s	Unknown	--	Webbase 2001

Performance Summary (Real-World Large Graphs):

Total instances tested: 88
Optimal solutions found: 28 (31.8%)
Average approximation ratio (where known): 1.007
Best ratio: 1.000 (28 instances)
Worst ratio: 1.032 (rt-retweet)
Largest instance solved: rec-amazon (262,111 vertices, 899,792 edges) in 68.7 minutes
Runtime distribution: Sub-second: 38 instances (43.2%); 1–60 seconds: 27 instances (30.7%); 1–10 minutes: 13 instances (14.8%); Over 10 minutes: 10 instances (11.4%)

5.2 Experiment 2: NPBench Hard Instances (The Creo Experiment)

This experiment, conducted on December 20, 2025 [Vega25Creo], evaluated Hvala v0.0.7 on 113 challenging instances from the NPBench collection [NPBench], including FRB (Factoring and Random Benchmarks) and DIMACS clique complement graphs.

FRB Instances (40 instances)

FRB Benchmark Results (Factoring and Random):

Instance	Optimal	Hvala	Time	Ratio
frb30-15-1.mis	420	426	443.82ms	1.014
frb30-15-2.mis	420	425	506.81ms	1.012
frb30-15-3.mis	420	426	475.87ms	1.014
frb30-15-4.mis	420	425	416.66ms	1.012
frb30-15-5.mis	420	425	445.95ms	1.012
frb35-17-1.mis	560	566	719.36ms	1.011
frb35-17-2.mis	560	565	739.85ms	1.009
frb35-17-3.mis	560	566	774.78ms	1.011
frb35-17-4.mis	560	566	856.32ms	1.011
frb35-17-5.mis	560	566	813.15ms	1.011
frb40-19-1.mis	720	728	1.16s	1.011
frb40-19-2.mis	720	728	1.22s	1.011
frb40-19-3.mis	720	726	1.19s	1.008
frb40-19-4.mis	720	729	1.20s	1.013
frb40-19-5.mis	720	728	1.21s	1.011
frb45-21-1.mis	900	906	1.96s	1.007
frb45-21-2.mis	900	910	1.89s	1.011
frb45-21-3.mis	900	908	1.89s	1.009
frb45-21-4.mis	900	910	1.86s	1.011
frb45-21-5.mis	900	907	1.83s	1.008
frb50-23-1.mis	1100	1108	2.68s	1.007
frb50-23-2.mis	1100	1109	2.72s	1.008
frb50-23-3.mis	1100	1108	2.63s	1.007
frb50-23-4.mis	1100	1109	2.91s	1.008
frb50-23-5.mis	1100	1111	2.92s	1.010
frb53-24-1.mis	1219	1231	4.57s	1.010
frb53-24-2.mis	1219	1228	3.33s	1.007
frb53-24-3.mis	1219	1229	4.82s	1.008
frb53-24-4.mis	1219	1227	3.46s	1.007
frb53-24-5.mis	1219	1229	3.53s	1.008
frb56-25-1.mis	1344	1355	3.88s	1.008
frb56-25-2.mis	1344	1358	4.22s	1.010
frb56-25-3.mis	1344	1354	4.12s	1.007
frb56-25-4.mis	1344	1352	4.11s	1.006
frb56-25-5.mis	1344	1354	3.85s	1.007
frb59-26-1.mis	1475	1485	5.00s	1.007
frb59-26-2.mis	1475	1486	4.86s	1.007
frb59-26-3.mis	1475	1485	5.67s	1.007
frb59-26-4.mis	1475	1485	5.06s	1.007
frb59-26-5.mis	1475	1486	4.80s	1.007
frb100-40.mis	3900	3922	27.78s	1.006

DIMACS Clique Complement Benchmarks (73 instances)

DIMACS Clique Complement Benchmark Results:

Instance	Optimal	Hvala	Time	Ratio
brock200_1	179	180	127.45ms	1.006
brock200_2	188	192	238.33ms	1.021
brock200_3	183	187	176.02ms	1.022
brock200_4	183	187	142.97ms	1.022
brock400_1	373	378	539.88ms	1.013
brock400_2	373	378	581.28ms	1.013
brock400_3	373	379	560.76ms	1.016
brock400_4	373	378	508.98ms	1.013
brock800_1	777	782	3.56s	1.006
brock800_2	777	782	3.86s	1.006
brock800_3	777	783	3.79s	1.008
brock800_4	777	783	3.75s	1.008
c-fat200-1	186	188	588.37ms	1.011
c-fat200-2	174	176	380.66ms	1.011
c-fat200-5	140	142	287.03ms	1.014
c-fat500-1	482	486	3.35s	1.008
c-fat500-10	372	374	2.42s	1.005
c-fat500-2	470	474	3.49s	1.009
c-fat500-5	434	436	3.09s	1.005
C125.9	91	93	31.63ms	1.022
C250.9	206	209	91.34ms	1.015
C500.9	443	451	330.04ms	1.018
C1000.9	932	939	1.94s	1.008
C2000.5	1984	1988	46.18s	1.002
C2000.9	1920	1934	10.29s	1.007
C4000.5	3978	3986	216.52s	1.002
gen200_p0.9_44	160	164	63.44ms	1.025
gen200_p0.9_55	160	163	40.88ms	1.019
gen400_p0.9_55	352	356	200.60ms	1.011
gen400_p0.9_65	352	356	255.87ms	1.011
gen400_p0.9_75	350	353	229.63ms	1.009
hamming6-2	32	32	0.00ms	1.000
hamming6-4	60	60	37.19ms	1.000
hamming8-2	128	128	37.79ms	1.000
hamming8-4	238	240	238.51ms	1.008
hamming10-2	512	512	455.43ms	1.000
hamming10-4	992	992	2.73s	1.000
johnson8-2-4	24	24	0.00ms	1.000
johnson8-4-4	56	56	5.20ms	1.000
johnson16-2-4	112	112	31.88ms	1.000
johnson32-2-4	480	480	363.80ms	1.000
keller4	160	160	95.72ms	1.000
keller5	749	752	1.87s	1.004
keller6	3303	3314	56.88s	1.003
MANN_a9	29	29	8.65ms	1.000
MANN_a27	252	253	64.22ms	1.004
MANN_a45	690	693	443.84ms	1.004
MANN_a81	2221	2225	4.30s	1.002
p_hat300-1	292	293	1.52s	1.003
p_hat300-2	275	277	534.66ms	1.007
p_hat300-3	264	267	298.34ms	1.011
p_hat500-1	491	492	2.75s	1.002
p_hat500-2	465	467	1.86s	1.004
p_hat500-3	453	454	1.04s	1.002
p_hat700-1	689	692	6.00s	1.004
p_hat700-2	656	657	4.07s	1.002
p_hat700-3	640	641	2.15s	1.002
p_hat1000-1	988	991	15.20s	1.003
p_hat1000-2	956	958	9.30s	1.002
p_hat1000-3	937	939	5.06s	1.002
p_hat1500-1	1488	1490	33.08s	1.001
p_hat1500-2	1437	1439	22.18s	1.001
p_hat1500-3	1413	1416	12.09s	1.002
san200_0.7_1	182	183	143.67ms	1.005
san200_0.7_2	183	185	125.95ms	1.011
san200_0.9_1	150	152	63.71ms	1.013
san200_0.9_2	160	161	63.81ms	1.006
san200_0.9_3	166	169	47.61ms	1.018
san400_0.5_1	387	391	988.70ms	1.010
san400_0.7_1	376	378	683.53ms	1.005
san400_0.7_2	379	382	649.11ms	1.008
san400_0.7_3	382	385	635.93ms	1.008
san400_0.9_1	316	317	255.68ms	1.003
san1000	986	990	8.70s	1.004
sanr200_0.7	183	184	196.33ms	1.005
sanr200_0.9	162	163	64.02ms	1.006
sanr400_0.5	387	388	994.94ms	1.003
sanr400_0.7	379	381	697.75ms	1.005

Performance Summary (NPBench Hard Instances):

Total instances tested: 113 (40 FRB + 73 DIMACS)
Optimal solutions found: 12 instances
Average approximation ratio: 1.006
Best ratio: 1.000 (12 optimal instances)
Worst ratio: 1.025 (gen200_p0.9_44)
Instances with ratio ≤ 1.015: 107 (95%)
FRB average ratio: 1.009
DIMACS average ratio: 1.007

5.3 Experiment 3: AI-Validated Stress Testing (The Gemini–Vega Validation)

This independent validation study, conducted on December 21, 2025 using Gemini AI [Vega25Gemini], tested Hvala on adversarially constructed hard graphs designed to challenge heuristic algorithms. The focus was on 3-regular graphs where every vertex has degree exactly 3, eliminating degree-based heuristic advantages.

Experimental Design:

Graph Construction: Random 3-regular graphs (uniform degree distribution)
AI Validation: Gemini AI architected testing framework and verified results
Baseline Comparison: Standard greedy highest-degree-first heuristic
Theoretical Context: Optimal vertex cover for 3-regular graphs is approximately $0.5446 n$ vertices

Gemini–Vega Stress Test Results on 3-Regular Graphs:

Graph Size	Vertices	Edges	Hvala Size	Greedy Size	Hvala Ratio
Power-Law (N=10,000)	10,000	--	4,957	5,093	--
3-Regular (N=5,000)	5,000	7,500	2,917 (58.34%)	3,073 (61.46%)	1.0712
3-Regular (N=20,000)	20,000	30,000	11,647 (58.24%)	12,350 (61.75%)	1.0693
Theoretical optimal for 3-regular: ~ $0.5446 n$ vertices

Key Observations:

Improvement Over Greedy: Hvala consistently outperforms greedy by 2.7–3.5%.
Ratio Stability: Approximation ratio improved slightly from 1.0712 to 1.0693 as graph size doubled.
Theoretical Context: Achieved ratio of 1.069 against theoretical optimum (~ $0.5446 n$ ).
Computational Feasibility: 20,000-vertex graph solved in 162.09 seconds.
AI Verification: Independent validation through Gemini AI confirms correctness and reproducibility.

Gemini AI Full Transcript: Complete experimental session available at https://gemini.google.com/share/55109efe4d85

6. Arguments Supporting the Strong Hypothesis

We now collect, in a single place, the five categories of evidence for the Strong Hypothesis ( $ρ < 2$ , hence P = NP). Each is labelled according to the taxonomy of Section 1.2 (Hypothesis / Confirmation / Suggestion / Stronger Assumption), so the reader always knows what is proved and what is conjectured.

6.1 Argument 1 (Empirical Confirmation): Consistency Across Diverse Instance Classes

Empirical Confirmation (Cross-experiment consistency). Across three independent experimental studies spanning 201+ instances with radically different structural properties, no instance exceeded ratio 1.071.

Cross-Experiment Consistency Analysis:

Experiment	Instances	Avg. Ratio	Max Ratio
Real-World Large Graphs (Resistire)	88	1.007	1.032
NPBench Hard Instances (Creo)	113	1.006	1.025
AI Stress Tests (Gemini–Vega)	3	--	1.071
Combined	204	1.007	1.071

Strength: Consistency across bipartite graphs, scale-free networks, dense random graphs, structured benchmarks, and adversarially constructed 3-regular graphs suggests that the algorithm exploits fundamental structural properties rather than artefacts of specific graph families.

Limitation: Consistency across tested instances does not prove impossibility of worse instances. If P ≠ NP, then instances achieving ratio $\geq 2$ must exist by the hardness results of Khot et al. under SETH.

6.2 Argument 2 (Empirical Confirmation): Scalability and Improved Performance on Larger Instances

Empirical Confirmation (Non-degradation at scale). Contrary to typical heuristic degradation, performance stabilises or improves on larger instances.

C4000.5 (3,986 vertices): ratio 1.002.
p_hat1500-1 (1,488 optimal): ratio 1.001.
20K 3-regular graph: ratio 1.0693 (better than the 5K instance at 1.0712).
rec-amazon (262K vertices): successfully processed.

Implication: If the algorithm degraded systematically on larger instances, we would expect ratios approaching or exceeding $2 \approx 1.414$ on the largest graphs tested. Instead, the largest instances maintain ratios ≤ 1.071.

Counterargument: Theoretical worst-case instances may require specific adversarial constructions not present in our test suite, possibly with size beyond computational feasibility.

6.3 Argument 3 (Empirical Confirmation): High Frequency of Provably Optimal Solutions

Empirical Confirmation (Exact optima). The algorithm achieves provably optimal solutions on significant fractions of tested instances.

Real-World: 28/88 optimal (31.8%).
NPBench: 12/113 optimal (10.6%).

Implication: Achieving exact optimality on 40 instances across the two experiments demonstrates that the degree-1 reduction core of Hvala (the Hallelujah heuristic [Vega26Hallelujah]) captures sufficient structural information to solve several graph classes exactly. This suggests the reduction is fundamentally sound, not a merely heuristic approximation.

Theoretical context: These optimal solutions occur primarily on tree-like structures (SCC instances) and highly regular graphs (Hamming, Johnson), where the degree-1 reduction perfectly captures the problem structure.

6.4 Argument 4 (Empirical Confirmation): Consistent Improvement Over Greedy Baselines

Empirical Confirmation (Greedy dominance). Across all experiments, Hvala consistently outperforms simple greedy by 2–4%.

Hvala vs. Greedy Comparison (Selected Instances):

Instance	Hvala	Greedy	Improvement	Optimal
3-Regular (5K)	2,917	3,073	5.1%	~2,723
3-Regular (20K)	11,647	12,350	5.7%	~10,892
Power-Law (10K)	4,957	5,093	2.7%	Unknown

Strength: This consistent improvement across diverse structures suggests Hvala captures global optimisation information missed by local degree-based heuristics.

6.5 Argument 5 (Theoretical): Weight-Preserving Reduction (the Degree-1 Vertex Cover Core)

The theoretical foundation of the degree-1 weighted vertex cover reduction — comprising weight preservation, lower bound preservation, and deterministic stability via lexicographical tie-breaking — is developed in full in the companion paper [Vega26Hallelujah]. We refer the reader to that work for the complete proofs; reproducing them here is outside the scope of the present compendium.

Implication: The proven properties established in [Vega26Hallelujah] ensure that the optimal weighted vertex cover on the reduced graph $G^{'}$ provides near-optimal guidance for the cover on $G$ , forming the rigorous backbone of the $S_{2}$ component in Hvala and a principled foundation beyond pure heuristic intuition.

Working Assumption (Closing the $2$ gap via the ensemble). We adopt, as a stronger assumption, that the component-wise $ar g min$ of the five Hvala heuristics inherits the lower-bound and stability properties of the degree-1 vertex cover core (established in [Vega26Hallelujah]) on every connected component, and that the non-covered regime of one heuristic is always absorbed by at least one of the other four. Under this assumption, the Strong Hypothesis follows.

Gap: The properties established in [Vega26Hallelujah], and their extension in this Working Assumption, do not yet constitute a complete worst-case proof of $ρ < 2$ . Closing this gap is explicitly left to forthcoming work (Section 7).

7. Forthcoming Work

The companion paper [Vega26Hallelujah,Vega25HallelujahPreprint] develops the single degree-1 weighted vertex cover heuristic in full theoretical detail. It serves as the rigorous backbone of the present paper's core component.

Building on that companion paper, we plan a sequel that:

Proves (or refutes) the Working Assumptions of Sections 4.2 and 6.5, turning the Strong Hypothesis into a theorem — or producing a constructive counterexample.
Extends the orthogonality analysis of Section 4 to a formal taxonomy of graph regimes, with quantitative worst-case bounds per heuristic.
Integrates a sixth and seventh heuristic targeting the residual regime (dense irregular graphs) identified by the Gemini–Vega stress tests.

Suggestion (Path to P = NP). We suggest that the most promising route to converting the Strong Hypothesis into a theorem is (i) sharpening the structural taxonomy, (ii) re-using the lower-bound preservation already proven in [Vega26Hallelujah], and (iii) invoking a component-wise $ar g min$ bound. We offer this as a research direction, not a result.

8. Conclusion

This work demonstrates that the Hvala algorithm — a compendium of five mutually-compensating heuristics, built around the degree-1 weighted vertex cover reduction whose rigorous analysis appears in the companion paper [Vega26Hallelujah,Vega25HallelujahPreprint] — achieves exceptional empirical performance on Minimum Vertex Cover, with no tested instance exceeding ratio 1.071 across 201+ diverse graphs.

We have been explicit about the epistemic status of every claim, using dedicated environments: results are tagged as Strong Hypothesis, Working Assumption, Empirical Confirmation, or Suggestion. In particular:

The Strong Hypothesis states that Hvala achieves $ρ < 2$ on every graph, which would imply P = NP under SETH. This is clearly flagged as an unproven hypothesis.
The Working Assumptions of Sections 4.2 and 6.5 are explicit stronger assumptions under which the Strong Hypothesis becomes a theorem.
The Empirical Confirmations of Section 6 record what the experiments on 201+ instances actually show.
The Suggestions of Sections 4.2 and 7 are invitations to further work.

Whether the Strong Hypothesis ultimately holds (solving P versus NP) or fails (revealing the limits of empirical validation and the importance of worst-case analysis), we believe the structured epistemic presentation — and the explicit focus on how the five heuristics cover each other's worst cases — advances our collective understanding of ensemble approximation. We invite vigorous scrutiny, attempted refutation, and independent validation from the theoretical computer science community.

Algorithm Availability: The Hvala algorithm is publicly available for independent verification:

PyPI: https://pypi.org/project/hvala
Installation: pip install hvala
Usage: from hvala.algorithm import find_vertex_cover
Source Code: Available for inspection and verification.

Companion Paper: The degree-1 weighted vertex cover reduction is fully analysed in [Vega26Hallelujah]; a preprint is available at [Vega25HallelujahPreprint].

Acknowledgment

The author is sincerely grateful to Iris, Marilin, Sonia, Yoselin, Arelis, Anissa, Liuva, Yudit, Gretel, Gema, and Blaquier, as well as Israel, Arderi, Juan Carlos, Yamil, Alejandro, Aroldo, Yary, Reinaldo, Alex, Emmanuel, and Michael for their constant support. Whether through encouragement, stimulating conversations, practical assistance, or simply being present during challenging moments, their contributions have played an important role in bringing this work to completion.

References

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[papadimitriou1998combinatorial] Papadimitriou, Christos H. and Steiglitz, Kenneth (1998). Combinatorial Optimization: Algorithms and Complexity. Courier Corporation, Mineola, New York.

[karakostas2009better] Karakostas, George (2009). A Better Approximation Ratio for the Vertex Cover Problem. ACM Transactions on Algorithms, 5(4), 1–8. DOI: 10.1145/1597036.1597045.

[karpinski1996approximating] Karpinski, Marek and Zelikovsky, Alexander (1996). Approximating Dense Cases of Covering Problems. DIMACS Series in Discrete Mathematics and Theoretical Computer Science, 26, 147–164. Providence, Rhode Island.

[dinur2005hardness] Dinur, Irit and Safra, Samuel (2005). On the Hardness of Approximating Minimum Vertex Cover. Annals of Mathematics, 162, 439–485. DOI: 10.4007/annals.2005.162.439.

[khot2017independent] Khot, Subhash and Minzer, Dor and Safra, Muli (2017). On Independent Sets, 2-to-2 Games, and Grassmann Graphs. Proceedings of the 49th Annual ACM SIGACT Symposium on Theory of Computing, 576–589. Montreal, Canada. DOI: 10.1145/3055399.3055432.

[dinur2018towards] Dinur, Irit and Khot, Subhash and Kindler, Guy and Minzer, Dor and Safra, Muli (2018). Towards a proof of the 2-to-1 games conjecture? Proceedings of the 50th Annual ACM SIGACT Symposium on Theory of Computing, 376–389. Los Angeles, California. DOI: 10.1145/3188745.3188804.

[khot2018pseudorandom] Khot, Subhash and Minzer, Dor and Safra, Muli (2018). Pseudorandom Sets in Grassmann Graph Have Near-Perfect Expansion. 2018 IEEE 59th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, 592–601. Paris, France. DOI: 10.1109/FOCS.2018.00062.

[khot2008vertex] Khot, Subhash and Regev, Oded (2008). Vertex Cover Might Be Hard to Approximate to Within $2 - ϵ$ . Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 74(3), 335–349. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcss.2007.06.019.

[khot2002unique] Khot, Subhash (2002). On the Power of Unique 2-Prover 1-Round Games. Proceedings of the 34th Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, 767–775. Montreal, Canada. DOI: 10.1145/509907.510017.

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[zhang2023tivc] Zhang, Yu and Wang, Shengzhi and Liu, Chanjuan and Zhu, Enqiang (2023). TIVC: An Efficient Local Search Algorithm for Minimum Vertex Cover in Large Graphs. Sensors, 23(18), 7831. DOI: 10.3390/s23187831.

[harris2024faster] Harris, David G. and Narayanaswamy, N. S. (2024). A Faster Algorithm for Vertex Cover Parameterized by Solution Size. 41st International Symposium on Theoretical Aspects of Computer Science, 40:1–40:18. Clermont-Ferrand, France. DOI: 10.4230/LIPIcs.STACS.2024.40.

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[Vega26Hallelujah] Vega, Frank (2026). An Approximate Solution to the Minimum Vertex Cover Problem: The Hallelujah Algorithm. International Journal of Parallel, Emergent and Distributed Systems. Taylor & Francis. DOI: 10.1080/17445760.2026.2660724. Accepted for publication.

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MSC (2020): 05C69 (Covering and packing), 68Q25 (Analysis of algorithms and problem complexity), 90C27 (Combinatorial optimization), 68W25 (Approximation algorithms)

Documentation

Available as PDF at An Approximate Solution to the Minimum Vertex Cover Problem: The Hvala Algorithm.

The Hvala algorithm is available as a Python package: https://pypi.org/project/hvala

Source code and full experimental data are provided in the supplementary materials.

DEV Community: Frank Vega

Siriaisa guarantees that every returned set is verified as independent and dominating with a 3-approximation ratio which would imply P = NP by known MIDS inapproximability results.

The Siriaisa Algorithm

The Siriaisa Algorithm

A Conditional 3-Approximation Certificate for Independent Dominating Sets: The Siriaisa Algorithm

Abstract

Introduction

Research Data

Description of the Algorithm

The Degree-Four Gadget

Correctness of the Algorithm

Runtime Analysis

Approximation Certificates and the Consequence for P vs NP

Experiments

Adversarial DIMACS results

Diagnostic: testMatrix16

Conclusion

The Hvala Algorithm in Publication

The Hallelujah Algorithm in Publication

This algorithm provides a stronger and cleaner evidence that P = NP.

The Salvador Algorithm

The Salvador Algorithm

An Approximate Solution to the Minimum Vertex Cover Problem: The Salvador Algorithm

Abstract

Introduction

Research Data

Description of the Algorithm

Main Algorithm

Bipartite Planar Gadget and Weighted Solve

Linear-Time Pruning

Correctness

Approximation Ratio and Consequences for P vs NP

Runtime Analysis

Experimental Study

Conclusion

This algorithm provides a strong evidence that P = NP.

The Furones Algorithm

The Valiente Experiment

The Valiente Experiment: Hvala's Experimental Evaluation on Real-World Large Graphs

Overview

The Hvala Algorithm

Reference Values

Experimental Results Table

Performance Analysis

Solution Quality Summary

Computational Efficiency

Graph Family Performance

Linear-Time Scalability

Conclusion

References

Cracking Vertex Cover in Linear Time

The Gemini_Vega Validation: Cracking Vertex Cover in Linear Time

The Gemini_Vega Validation: Cracking Vertex Cover in Linear Time

An AI_Powered Stress Test of the Hvala Algorithm

Executive Summary

The Objective

Phase 1: The "Real_World" Test (Power_Law Graphs)

Phase 2: The "Trial by Fire" (3_Regular Graphs)

Stage A: 5,000 Nodes (v0.0.7)

Stage B: 20,000 Nodes (The Complexity Pivot)

Phase 3: The Extreme Scale (500,000 Nodes)

Conclusion: Why This Matters

View the Full Interaction

Breaking 3SUM-Hardness (almost ever)!

The Aegypti Algorithm

A Proof of P = NP

An Approximate Solution to the Minimum Vertex Cover Problem: The Hvala Algorithm

Abstract

1. Introduction

1.1 Relation to the Accepted "Hallelujah Algorithm" Paper

1.2 The Strong Hypothesis

1.3 Algorithm Overview

1.4 Experimental Validation Framework

2. Related Work and State-of-the-Art

2.1 Theoretical Approximation Algorithms

2.2 Practical Heuristic Methods

2.3 Fixed-Parameter Tractable Algorithms

2.4 Positioning of Our Work

3. The Hvala Algorithm: Detailed Description

3.1 Algorithm Structure and Pseudocode

Diagnostic: `testMatrix16`