How I Built a Custom x86 Operating System Kernel and Interactive Shell from Scratch

Rohan Gopal N — Mon, 26 Oct 2026 14:02:32 +0000

Introduction

Many software engineers spend their entire careers operating behind layers of abstraction—writing high-level code that relies on runtimes, garbage collectors, standard libraries, and pre-packaged operating system APIs. While modern toolchains provide speed and productivity, they obscure a fundamental question: What actually happens when a computer turns on and loads an executable into memory?

Driven by curiosity and inspired by the early days of personal computing, I set out to build Rohnux: a lightweight 32-bit x86 operating system built entirely from scratch in C and Assembly.

In this article, I will explain how Rohnux works, how it transitions from bare metal to C code, and how I implemented an interactive shell with an in-memory file system.

1. The Boot Sequence: Crossing the Bare-Metal Bridge

When an x86 PC powers on, the system hardware initializes in Real Mode—a legacy 16-bit state. Modern kernels must transition to 32-bit Protected Mode to access linear memory and hardware control registers.

Rather than writing a full bootloader from scratch, Rohnux relies on the Multiboot Specification, allowing it to be loaded by standard bootloaders such as GRUB.

The Assembly Entry Point (src/boot.s)

Because C requires an initialized stack pointer (ESP) to handle function calls, local variables, and parameters, our kernel's entry point must be written in assembly:

/* Declare constants for the Multiboot header */
.set ALIGN,    1<<0             /* Align loaded modules on page boundaries */
.set MEMINFO,  1<<1             /* Provide memory map */
.set FLAGS,    ALIGN | MEMINFO  /* Multiboot flag field */
.set MAGIC,    0x1BADB002       /* Magic number letting bootloader find header */
.set CHECKSUM, -(MAGIC + FLAGS) /* Checksum required by Multiboot specification */

/* Multiboot Header */
.section .multiboot
.align 4
.long MAGIC
.long FLAGS
.long CHECKSUM

/* Reserve 16 KiB Stack for the C Kernel */
.section .bss
.align 16
stack_bottom:
.skip 16384 # 16 KiB
stack_top:

/* Kernel Entry Point */
.section .text
.global _start
.type _start, @function
_start:
    mov $stack_top, %esp
    call kernel_main

    cli
1:  hlt
    jmp 1b

What Happens Here?

Multiboot Signature: GRUB scans the compiled binary for the 0x1BADB002 magic number. If verified, it confirms the binary is a valid kernel.

Stack Allocation: We reserve 16 KiB in uninitialized memory (.bss) and point %esp to stack_top.

Execution Handoff: Assembly transfers control to kernel_main(), our main entry point written in C.

2. Memory Layout: The Linker Script (src/linker.ld)

To ensure GRUB puts code and data where the kernel expects them, we use a custom linker script:

ENTRY(_start)

SECTIONS
{
    /* Begin placing sections at 1 MB (standard for x86 kernels) */
    . = 1M;

    .text BLOCK(4K) : ALIGN(4K)
    {
        KEEP(*(.multiboot))
        *(.text)
    }

    .rodata BLOCK(4K) : ALIGN(4K)
    {
        *(.rodata)
    }

    .data BLOCK(4K) : ALIGN(4K)
    {
        *(.data)
    }

    .bss BLOCK(4K) : ALIGN(4K)
    {
        *(COMMON)
        *(.bss)
    }
}

The linker script places our kernel at physical address 0x00100000 (1 MiB), leaving low memory intact for hardware and system structures. It guarantees that the .multiboot section sits at the beginning of the file.

3. Writing the Bare-Metal C Kernel (src/kernel.c)

In bare-metal C programming, standard C library functions (printf, malloc, strcmp) are unavailable. Everything must be implemented manually.

Direct VGA Hardware Access

To print characters to the display, Rohnux writes 16-bit units (8-bit ASCII character + 8-bit color code) directly to the VGA Text Buffer located at address 0xB8000:


static volatile uint16_t *const VGA_MEMORY = (volatile uint16_t *)0xB8000;
static const size_t VGA_WIDTH = 80;
static const size_t VGA_HEIGHT = 25;

void terminal_putentryat(char c, uint8_t color, size_t x, size_t y) {
    const size_t index = y * VGA_WIDTH + x;
    VGA_MEMORY[index] = ((uint16_t)color << 8) | c;
}

PS/2 Keyboard Driver & Polling Loop

To capture keystrokes without an active Interrupt Descriptor Table (IDT), Rohnux uses hardware port polling. The kernel checks status port 0x64 to verify if data is available, then reads raw scan codes from data port 0x60:

static inline uint8_t inb(uint16_t port) {
    uint8_t ret;
    __asm__ volatile ("inb %1, %0" : "=a"(ret) : "Nd"(port));
    return ret;
}

char keyboard_read_char(void) {
    while (1) {
        if (inb(0x64) & 1) { // Check if data buffer is full
            uint8_t scancode = inb(0x60);
            if (!(scancode & 0x80)) { // Key-press event (ignore release)
                char c = get_ascii_char(scancode);
                if (c != 0) return c;
            }
        }
    }
}

4. The Rohnux Interactive Shell & RAM File System

Once raw character inputs and screen outputs were functional, I developed a lightweight command interpreter and an in-memory Virtual File System (RAM FS).

Built-in System Commands

Rohnux currently supports the following standard commands:

help — Prints the system help menu.

about — Displays OS version metadata.

clear — Wipes the VGA video buffer.

ls — Lists active files and directories.

mkdir — Allocates a dynamic directory entry in memory.

touch — Creates a dynamic file entry in memory.

Shell Processing Loop

void kernel_main(void) {
    terminal_initialize();
    init_fs();

    print_string("=========================\n");
    print_string("      ROHNUX v0.2        \n");
    print_string("=========================\n");
    print_string("Type 'help' for commands.\n\nrohnux> ");

    char cmd_buffer[256];
    int buf_idx = 0;

    while (1) {
        char c = keyboard_read_char();

        if (c == '\n') {
            cmd_buffer[buf_idx] = '\0';
            execute_command(cmd_buffer);
            buf_idx = 0;
            print_string("\nrohnux> ");
        } else if (c == '\b') { // Handle Backspace
            if (buf_idx > 0) {
                buf_idx--;
                terminal_backspace();
            }
        } else if (c >= 32 && c <= 126) { // Printable Characters
            if (buf_idx < 255) {
                cmd_buffer[buf_idx++] = c;
                char str[2] = {c, '\0'};
                print_string(str);
            }
        }
    }
}

5. Building and Booting the ISO Image

To test Rohnux on bare metal or inside a hypervisor, the build pipeline compiles all object files, links them into a Multiboot binary, and generates a bootable ISO using GRUB:

1. Compile assembly entry point and kernel source

gcc -m32 -ffreestanding -c src/boot.s -o build/boot.o
gcc -m32 -ffreestanding -fno-pie -fno-stack-protector -O2 -c src/kernel.c -o build/kernel.o

2. Link objects into binary executable

ld -m elf_i386 -T src/linker.ld -o build/rohnux.bin build/boot.o build/kernel.o

3. Create ISO image with GRUB rescue tools

cp build/rohnux.bin iso/boot/rohnux.bin
grub-mkrescue -o build/rohnux.iso iso

4. Boot inside QEMU emulator

qemu-system-i386 -cdrom build/rohnux.iso

Conclusion and Future Roadmap

Building Rohnux v0.2 provided deep insights into hardware initialization, video buffers, port I/O, and low-level execution models. Moving from zero lines of code to a bootable, self-contained OS with an interactive shell highlights the power of systems programming.

What's Next for Rohnux v0.3?

Interrupt Descriptor Table (IDT): Replacing hardware polling with real asynchronous IRQ hardware interrupts.

Memory Management: Implementing a physical page allocator and kernel heap (kmalloc/kfree).

ATA Hard Disk Driver: Reading and writing persistent data to storage devices rather than holding files in RAM.

DEV Community: Rohan Gopal N