Building a Verification-Aware Programming Language from Scratch in C (with Z3)

S V Mohit Kumar — Tue, 01 Sep 2026 08:13:49 +0000

Most modern programming languages rely on runtime assertions or unit tests to catch bugs. While useful, runtime checks only catch errors along paths your test suite actually executes.

What if a programming language could mathematically prove that assertions, loop invariants, and function contracts hold across all possible inputs before generating a single line of bytecode?

Over the past few weeks, I designed and built Vera—a compiled language written entirely from scratch in C, featuring a custom stack-based Virtual Machine and an integrated static verification engine powered by the Z3 Theorem Prover.

In this post, I'll walk through how Vera works, how the compiler pipeline is structured, and how we implement Weakest Precondition (WP) calculus to verify programs at compile time.

1. What Does Vera Code Look Like?

Vera looks similar to a C/Rust hybrid, but contracts and invariants are first-class language constructs.

Function Contracts (`requires` and `ensures`)

Functions can specify preconditions (requires) and postconditions (ensures), with the special result identifier representing the returned value:

fn add(x, y) requires x > 0 ensures result > y {
    return x + y;
}

print add(5, 10); // Output: 15.00

Loop Invariants

Invariants can be placed on while, for, and do-while loops:

for (let i = 0; i < 5; i = i + 1) invariant (i >= 0) {
    print i;
}

If any contract, invariant, or assertion can fail, the compiler halts at compile-time and outputs a concrete counterexample!

2. Compiler Architecture

Vera follows an end-to-end compiler pipeline:

 Source Code (*.ver)
        │
        ▼
   [ Lexer ]          Tokenizes input characters into tokens
        │
        ▼
   [ Parser ]         Recursive-descent parser producing an AST
        │
        ▼
 [ Verification ]     Static verification via Weakest Preconditions (Z3)
        │             (Compilation ABORTS if Z3 finds a counterexample)
        ▼
   [ Codegen ]        Walks the AST and emits stack bytecode instructions
        │
        ▼
     [ VM ]           Executes bytecode on a stack machine with heap/callframes

3. How Compile-Time Static Verification Works

Instead of only verifying contracts at runtime inside the VM, Vera performs Verification Condition Generation (VCG) using Dijkstra's Weakest Precondition (WP) calculus.

The Core Idea of Weakest Precondition

For any statement S and desired postcondition Q, WP(S, Q) computes the least restrictive condition that must hold before executing S to guarantee that Q holds after S.

Here is how Vera computes WP across different AST nodes:

Assignment / Let (x = E):

  WP(x = E, Q) = Q[x := E]

(Syntactic substitution: replace every occurrence of variable x in Q with expression E)

Assertions (assert C):

  WP(assert C, Q) = C && Q

Conditionals (if (C) S1 else S2):

  WP(if, Q) = (C => WP(S1, Q)) && (!C => WP(S2, Q))

Loops (while (C) invariant (Inv) { Body }):
A loop generates three independent verification obligations:
1. Loop Entry: The invariant must hold before the loop starts.
2. Loop Preservation: Assuming Inv && C, executing the loop body must re-establish Inv:
```
 Inv && C => WP(Body, Inv)
```

Loop Exit: When the loop terminates, the invariant and negated condition must establish the outer postcondition:
```
 Inv && !C => Q
```

4. Bridging C to Z3 via SMT-LIB2

Once Vera constructs the top-level Verification Condition (VC) as an AST formula, it translates it into the SMT-LIB2 standard format and passes it to the Z3 SMT solver.

The Sort Mismatch Challenge

In the runtime VM, all variables and numbers are stored as double (Real). But in mathematical logic, boolean operators (and, or, not) expect Bool sorts.

To prevent Z3 sort mismatch errors, the AST-to-SMT serializer inspects node expressions. If an arithmetic expression is used inside a boolean context, it automatically coerces it to SMT Bool:

void print_smt_bool(FILE *out, ASTNode *node) {
    if (is_smt_bool(node)) {
        print_smt_expr(out, node);
    } else {
        // Coerce Real numeric value to Bool: (not (= E 0.0))
        fprintf(out, "(not (= ");
        print_smt_expr(out, node);
        fprintf(out, " 0.0))");
    }
}

Proving Validity by Searching for Counterexamples

To prove that a verification condition VC is always true (valid), we ask Z3 if its negation is satisfiable:

Assert( not VC )

If Z3 returns unsat: No input can ever violate the condition. The program is proven correct!
If Z3 returns sat: Z3 found a concrete assignment of variables that breaks the code. Verification fails.

5. Extracting Concrete Counterexamples

When Z3 returns sat, we don't just want to tell the developer "Verification Failed". We want to tell them which inputs caused the failure.

We append (get-model) to the SMT query and parse Z3's output model in C:

(declare-const x Real)
(declare-const y Real)
(assert (not (=> (> x 0.0) (> (+ x y) (+ y 10.0)))))
(check-sat)
(get-model)

For this buggy function:

fn bad_add(x, y) requires x > 0 ensures result > y + 10 {
    return x + y;
}

Running the compiler immediately halts with:

Verification FAIL: Function contract for 'bad_add' (Z3 output: sat)
Counterexample values: 
  x = 1.0
  y = 0.0
Error: Static verification failed. VM execution aborted.

Z3 found that with x = 1.0 (which satisfies x > 0) and y = 0.0, the returned result 1.0 is not greater than y + 10 = 10.0, saving you from a runtime defect!

6. Key Takeaways & Lessons Learned

AST Memory Ownership: Verification condition generation involves heavy AST substitution and synthesis. Strict cloning (clone_ast) is critical to avoid double-free errors during AST destruction.
First-Principles Systems Programming: Writing a compiler and bytecode VM from scratch in C gives an unmatched appreciation for how call frames, instruction pointers, symbol tables, and heap memory interact.
Formal Methods in Compilers: Integrating SMT solvers at compile time makes writing reliable software intuitive and mathematically rigorous.

What's Next?

Future directions for Vera:

[ ] Static array bounds checking (0 <= i < length).
[ ] Static division-by-zero detection.
[ ] A dedicated Web-based IDE with live verification diagnostics and error squiggles.

Check out the full source code and test scripts on GitHub:
👉 https://github.com/SVMK2808/toy_compiler

I’d love to hear your thoughts, suggestions, and feedback in the comments below! Have you experimented with formal verification or building toy compilers? Let's discuss!

DEV Community: S V Mohit Kumar