DEV Community: Syed Zain Nasir

Types of PCB(Printed Circuit Boards)

Syed Zain Nasir — Fri, 25 Jun 2021 20:04:05 +0000

A printed circuit board (PCB) is made up of non-conductive material. Copper is laminated on non-conductive material. A different pattern is used to print on it therefore, it is called a printed circuit board.

Why we use printed circuit board?

We use a printed circuit board because if we make a circuit simply through a wire it takes more place and the circuit can easily get short and open. If we make a big circuit it is very difficult to make such a big circuit. Connecting the wire without using the printed circuit board is most difficult. Moreover, in order to reduce the size of PCB, SMD components are used. So, connecting the component on the printed circuit board is easy as compared to connecting the component without using PCB. Pads and tracks are printed on the copper lamination printed circuit board. Soldering is used to connect the component on the PCB. Through pads and tracks, a current connection is established between one component to another. Using a printed circuit board, we can make small, big, easy, and difficult circuits. PCB is used to make strong circuits. PCB circuit doesn’t get damaged easily as compared to the one which was not made on PCB. PCB is used in TV remotes, iron, and so on.

Types of PCB

Single Layer PCB
Double Layer PCB
Multilayer PCB
Flexible PCB
Aluminum Baked PCB
Flex-rigid PCB

Single Layer PCB:

A single-layer printed circuit board has only one layer of copper, and only one side is used to place the copper layer. copper is laminated on ER4 substrate. ER4 substrate is made up of glass material it is not a conducting material. Pads, tracks, and lines are made on PCB to connect the electronic components. Single Layer PCB is very cheap as compared to other PCB. When we have to make a less expensive circuit, we used a single-side PCB. It is mostly used in toys, as only one side is used for attaching components. A solder mask is used on top of the PCB because it protects the PCB. Initially, this PCB is made then another PCB is made as to the necessity of the requirement.

Double Layer PCB:

In a double-layer printed circuit board, the copper is laminated on both sides of the substrate. Pads, tracks, and lines are making on PCB to connect the electronic component. Holes are prinking on PCB with the help of the pads and tracks and then place the electronic component on PCB. Copper is also laminated in the holes of the PCB, current moves through one side of the PCB to the other side of the PCB through holes. High-quality material is used to make double-layer PCB. It is expensive as compared to single-side PCB. In double side PCB, we make on both side pads and tracks because in double-layer PCB copper is laminated on both sides. Soldier mask is used on the top and bottom layer for the protection of the PCB.

Multi-layer PCB:

Multilayer PCB is made up of more than three copper layers. Multi-layer PCB is complex as compared to single-layer PCB or double-layer PCB. This complex circuit is made to combine single side PCB or double side PCB. These PCBs expand the technology used in double-sided PCBs. Various layers of substrate board and insulating materials separate the layers in multi-layer PCBs. The PCBs are compact in size and offer the benefits of weight and space.do a large number of wiring in multilayer PCB because a large number of layers are used. The dielectric material is used to separate the double layer PCB because this board is made up of a large number of double-layer PCBs. we make this PCB our choice. The rigid material is used to make this circuit because this circuit is easy to make on rigid material as compare to make on flexible material.4 to 8 layers is mostly used to make multilayer PCB.

Flexible PCB:

Flexible PCB is constructed on a flexible base material. Flexible PCBs can bend and move. These PCBs help save a lot of space, along with reducing the overall board weight. the flexible material is used to make this type of PCB and electronic components are not damaged when we move the flexible PCB.it is very useful when we make any electronic device that is less in size or weight. flexible PCBs are majority made up of polyamide. this Flexible PCB is also called an FPC (flexible printed circuit).it is more reliable as compare to single side PCB, double side PCB, and multilayer PCB because it is easily bent and move. its installation is easy. this is used in calculators, cameras, and so on.

Aluminum Baked PCB:

In Aluminum Baked PCB, aluminum is used as a substrate. Dielectric is used to separate the tracks and aluminum back. Aluminum is used to reduce heat because aluminum absorbs heat. the dielectric layer is present in between the copper layer and aluminum layer and then tracks and pads are made on the copper layer. Aluminum-backed PCB is mostly used to reduce heat. It is very helpful for the circuit which produces a lot of heat and where which we do not want to produce more heat therefore, this PCB help a lot, and its reliability also greater.

Flex Rigid PCB:

Two type combination is used to make the Flex rigid PCB. Rigid-flex PCBs are a combination of rigid and flexible circuit boards. It doesn’t bend or fold. It is half flexible and half rigid. When in any electronic device require both combinations as our requirement made one PCB which has the quality of both so, it helps a lot where we use rigid and flexible PCB.

Application of Printed Circuit Board.

Monitor
Scanning technology
Control system
Computer
Communication
Industrial control

Applications of MOSFET

Syed Zain Nasir — Mon, 14 Jun 2021 06:25:56 +0000

The MOSFET is used in a variety of electrical and electronic projects that are created using a variety of electrical and electronic components. We have provided some examples of projects to help you grasp this concept.

1. MOSFET as a switch:

An N-channel MOSFET is used to switch the lamp ON and OFF in this circuit, which is using enhanced mode. When a positive voltage is applied to the MOSFET's gate, the lamp turns on (VGS =+v), when removed the device turns off (VGS=0). If the lamp's resistive load was to be replaced with an inductive load and the load was to be protected by a relay or diode. It is a very simple circuit for switching a resistive load, such as LEDs or a lamp, in the above circuit. However, when using MOSFETs to switch either an inductive or capacitive load, MOSFET applications must be protected. You should also have a look at this detailed lecture on Transistor as a switch. The MOSFET will be damaged if we do not provide the necessary protection. To function as an analogue switching device, the MOSFET must be switched between its cutoff and saturation regions, where VGS =0 and VGS =+v, respectively

2. MOSFET-based Auto Intensity Control of Street Lights:

The majority of lights used on highways nowadays are High-Intensity Discharge lamps (HID), which have a high energy consumption. Because the intensity of the light cannot be adjusted to meet the requirements, an alternative lighting system, such as LEDs, could be used. This system is designed to overcome the disadvantages of HID lamps in today's world.

The goal of this project is to use a microprocessor and clock pulses to control the street lights on highways automatically. The MOSFET is used to switch the lamps according to the requirements in this project. The proposed system makes use of a Raspberry Pi board, which is a new development board that includes a processor. In this case, we can use LEDs instead of HID lamps, which are connected to the processor via a MOSFET. The microcontroller switches the MOSFET to illuminate the light with bright intensity after releasing the respective duty cycles.

3. High Voltage Based on a Marx Generator MOSFET:

These are a type of semiconductor that can be used in a wide range. The main goal of this project is to create a circuit that uses the Marx generator principle to deliver an output voltage that is roughly triple that of the input voltage. It is designed to generate high-voltage pulses by charging a number of capacitors in parallel during the on period and then connecting them in series during the off period to generate a higher voltage. If the applied input voltage is around 12 volts DC, the output voltage will be around 36 volts DC.

Due to the voltage drop in the circuit, this system uses a 555 timer in a stable mode to deliver clock pulses to charge the parallel capacitors during on time and to bring the capacitors in series during off time through MOSFET switches; as a result, the voltage developed is approximately triple the input voltage but a little less than 36v.

4. Preset Speed Control of a BLDC Motor Using an EEPROM:

The BLDC motor's speed control is critical in industries, as it is required for a variety of applications such as drilling, spinning, and elevator systems. The duty cycle of the BLDC motor is varied in this project to control the speed of the motor.

The main goal would be to run a BLDC motor at a specific speed while maintaining a predetermined voltage. As a result, the motor can either remain operational or be restarted to run at the same speed as before using data stored in an EEPROM.

The duty cycles (PWM Pulses) from a microcontroller are varied according to the program to control the speed of the DC motor. In order to control the speed of the DC motor, the microcontroller receives the percentage of duty cycles stored in the EEPROM from inbuilt switch commands and delivers the desired output to switch the driver IC. If the power supply is lost, the EEPROM stores the information to keep the motor running at the same speed it was before the power supply was lost.

5. Intensity-controlled street lights:

A (light dependent resistor) LDR based light detector could be used. In the current system, highway lighting is mostly done with High-Intensity Discharge lamps (HID), which have high energy consumption and no specialized mechanism to turn on the highway light in the evening and turn it off in the morning.

Because the intensity of the light cannot be adjusted to meet the requirements, an alternative lighting system, such as LEDs, must be used. This system is designed to overcome the disadvantages of HID lamps in today's world.

This system demonstrates the use of LEDs (light-emitting diodes) as a light source and how to control the intensity of the light based on the requirements. When compared to traditional HID lamps, LEDs use less energy and have a longer lifespan.

The most important and intriguing feature is that its intensity can be adjusted to meet individual needs during non-peak hours, which is not possible with HID lamps. The light is detected using a light sensing device called LDR (Light Dependent Resistance). Its resistance decreases dramatically as the amount of daylight increases, which serves as an input signal to the controller.

A street light is made up of a grouping of LEDs. The microcontroller has programmable instructions that control the brightness of the lights using PWM (pulse width modulation) signals.

The intensity of light is maintained at a high level during peak hours, and as traffic on the roads decreases late at night, the intensity gradually decreases until morning. Finally, at 6 a.m., the lights are turned off completely until 6 p.m., when they are turned back on. As a result, the procedure repeats itself.

6. SVPWM (Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation):

SVPWM is a non-profit organization that helps people (Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation)

The Space Vector PWM technique is a sophisticated method of controlling AC motors by generating a fundamental sine wave that provides a pure voltage to the motor with lower total harmonic distortion. Due to the asymmetrical nature of the PWM switching characteristics, this method outperforms the old technique of using SPWM to control an AC motor with high harmonic distortion.

This system generates DC power from single-phase AC after rectification, which is then fed to a 3-phase inverter with six MOSFETs. A pair of MOSFETs is used for each phase, resulting in three pairs of MOSFETs being switched at different intervals of time to produce a three-phase supply to control the motor's speed. This circuit also indicates any faults in the control circuit with a light.

As a result, we've covered all of the different types of MOSFET applications. Finally, we'll point out that MOSFETs require a high voltage, whereas transistors require a low voltage and current. The driving requirement of a MOSFET is significantly lower than that of a BJT.

What is MOSFET?

Syed Zain Nasir — Mon, 14 Jun 2021 06:23:15 +0000

The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor is a semiconductor device that is commonly used in electronic devices for switching and amplifying electronic signals. The MOSFET consists of three terminals: source, gate, and drain. The MOSFET is by far the most widely used transistor, and it can be used in both analogue and digital circuits.

The MOSFET operates by varying the width of a charge-carrier-flowing channel (holes and electrons). Charge carriers enter the channel from the source and leave via the drain. The voltage on an electrode called the gate, which is located between the source and drain, controls the channel width. An extremely thin layer of metal oxide separates it from the channel. MOSFET applications come in a variety of shapes and sizes, depending on the needs.

Types of MOSFET:

MOSFETs are divided into two types:

Depletion Mode:

The channel reaches its maximum conductance when the gate terminal is at zero voltage. The channel conductivity decreases as the gate voltage goes either negative or positive.

Enhancement Mode:

The device does not conduct when no voltage is applied to the gate terminal. The device has good conductivity when there is more voltage applied to the gate terminal.

Working Principle of MOSFET:

The metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) capacitor, which is the MOSFET's main component, is responsible for the MOSFET's operation. Between the source and drain terminals, there is an oxide layer. By applying positive or negative gate voltages, it can be switched from p-type to n-type. When a positive gate voltage is applied, the holes beneath the oxide layer are pushed downward through the substrate by a repulsive force. The bound negative charges that are allied with the acceptor atoms populate the deflection region.

MOSFETs with a P-Channel:

Because the P-Channel MOSFET is made up of negative ions, it can only work with negative voltages. When a negative voltage is applied to the gate, the electrons beneath the oxide layer are pushed downward into the substrate by a repulsive force. The bound positive charges that are associated with the donor atoms populate the deflection region. Additionally, the negative voltage attracts holes from the surrounding environment.

MOSFETs with N-Channels:

The holes under the oxide layer pushed downward into the substrate with a repulsive force when the positive gate voltage was applied. The bound negative charges that are associated with the acceptor atoms populate the deflection region. Electrons from the n+ source and drain regions are also attracted into the channel by the positive voltage. When a voltage is applied between the drain and the source, current flows freely between them, while the gate voltage controls the electrons in the channel. When a negative voltage (hole) is applied in place of a positive voltage, a channel is formed beneath the oxide layer.

Applications of Semiconductors

Syed Zain Nasir — Sun, 13 Jun 2021 04:29:40 +0000

In the last tutorial, we have seen the properties of semiconductors, so now let's have a look at the Applications of Semiconductors. I will also sum up this tutorial series today.

Applications of Semiconductors in Industry

The use of semiconductor materials make possible numerous technological wonders, including transistors, microchips, solar cells, and LED displays. With the microprocessor, we can control the operation of car, trains and space vehicles. Semiconductors are widely used in our industry nowadays. Some applications of semiconductors in industry are as follows:

Day by day with the increase in technology semiconductor requirement is also going to improve. Nowadays as per industry demands many new devices are discovered with the help of semiconductor materials. Without transistors and integrated circuits, our modern life would be very difficult.
semiconductors are present in almost all modern electronics. It is available on mobile or computer. Semiconductors are a necessary component of electronic devices, in communications, computing, healthcare, military systems, transportation, clean energy, and countless other applications.
Due to their role in the fabrication of electronic devices, semiconductors are an important part of our lives. Imagine life without electronic devices. There would be no smartphones, radios, TVs, computers, video games, or advanced medical diagnostic equipment.
With the microprocessor, we can control the operation of cars, trains, and space vehicles. The microprocessor is made up by numerous transistor and other controlling devices which made up by the semiconductor material.
Semiconductors are used in solar technology. With a PV solar system, sunlight hits a solar panel, made out of a semiconductor material like silicon.
Semiconductors plays an important role in 3D printing machines. Working with a system that is designed for 3D printing circuit boards is an excellent way to complement an existing semiconductor manufacturing process for low-volume.
Temperature sensors which are used in air conditioners are made with semiconductor devices. These are the electronic devices manufactured to present-day electronic semiconductor devices like microprocessors.

SUMMING UP!

So, Guys isn’t it exciting to know that now you can familiar with the semiconductors by reading the article along with all of its description and usage. We discussed all about semiconductors that can help you to understand the concept of semiconductors.

So, if you have any queries about this article, must inform us. If you like this article, let us know about it in the comment section. If there is any problem with this, must inform us. We would love to solve your queries.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION:

Question No 1: What are the elements that make a good semiconductor?

Answer: Two elements make a good semiconductor, and they are Silicon and Germanium. Both elements have four valence electrons.

Question No 2: Why does the Resistivity of Semiconductors go down with Temperature?

Answer: The difference in resistivity between conductors and semiconductors is due to their difference in charge carrier density.

The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature because the number of charge carriers increases rapidly with an increase in temperature, making the fractional change i.e. the temperature coefficient negative.

Question No 3: Why extrinsic semiconductors are used in electronics manufacturing?

Answer: Because the electrical conductivity of the extrinsic type is high compare with intrinsic. So these are applicable in designing transistors, diodes, etc.

Question No 4: What is the principle of semiconductor?

Answer: Insulators such as oil, glass, rubber and ceramics have a large band gap which prevents the flow of electrons. Semiconductors in contrast have a small band gap and the flow of electrons and electron holes can be controlled by adding impurities to the material.

Question No 5: Why the valence band in semiconductors is partially empty and the conduction band is partially filled at room temperature?

Answer: In semiconductors, the conduction band is empty and the valence band is completely filled at Zero Kelvin. No electron from valence band can cross conduction band at this temperature. But at room temperature, some electrons in the valence band jump over to the conduction band due to small forbidden gap i.e. 1 eV.

Properties of Semiconductors

Syed Zain Nasir — Sun, 13 Jun 2021 04:24:32 +0000

In the previous tutorial, we have seen the types of semiconductors and today we will have a look at the properties of semiconductors:

PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS:

The physical and chemical properties of semiconductors make them capable of designing technological wonders like microchips, transistors, LEDs, solar cells, etc.
The microcontroller used for controlling the operation of space vehicles, trains, robots etc is made up of transistors which are manufactured by semiconductor materials.
Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
Semiconductors can conduct electricity under preferable conditions or circumstances. This unique property makes it an excellent material to conduct electricity.
Semiconductor devices can display a range of useful properties, such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other. Because the electrical properties of a semiconductor material can be modified by doping.
Semiconductors have large thermoelectric power factors making them useful in thermoelectric generators.

ADVANTAGES OF SEMICONDUCTORS:

Semiconductor diode is cheaper as compared to vacuum tubes. Because it does not produce any current in the absence of applied voltage.
It has very small interelectrode capacitances and less power consumption.
This is very important in high frequency application.
Semiconductors are small in size and lighter weight.
Semiconductor devices occupy less space on any type of printed circuit board i.e. Flexible PCB.
The semiconductor device does not produce any noise.
It has a long life and is robust in construction.
Semiconductor devices they have no vacuum deterioration trouble.

DISADVANTAGES OF SEMICONDUCTORS:

Semiconductor devices require low voltage operation as compared to the vacuum tubes.
Semiconductor devices cannot handle as more power as ordinary vacuum tubes can do.
Semiconductor diode cannot withstand high reverse voltage.
It has poor response and has reverse saturation current.
In high frequency noise level is higher in semiconductor device.

Types of Semiconductors

Syed Zain Nasir — Sun, 13 Jun 2021 04:21:14 +0000

We have seen what is semiconductor? in our previous tutorial and today, we will have a look at types of Semiconductors. Semiconductors can be classified as:

Intrinsic Semiconductor
Extrinsic Semiconductor

Intrinsic Semiconductor:

Definition:

“A semiconductor in its extremely pure form is called intrinsic semiconductors.”

In this semiconductor, the conduction band is empty whereas the valence band is filled totally. When the temperature is increased, some heat energy can be supplied to it. So the electrons from the valence band moves towards the conduction band by leaving the valence band.

Examples:

Pure Ge and Si are Intrinsic Semiconductors. They belong to the fourth group of the periodic table. Their electrical behavior extremely depends upon its purity.

In the above figure the electronic configuration of both the elements that they have four electrons in their outermost shell or valence shell. When the temperature is increased, the electrons gain more thermal energy and thus break free from their shell. It creates a vacancy in the bond between the atoms. The hole is then occupied by a free electron, as a result of which the latter vacant position becomes a hole and the former becomes a neutral position. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.

Extrinsic Semiconductor:

Definition:

“An impure form of semiconductor material is called the extrinsic semiconductor.”

Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that are doped with specific impurities. The impurity modifies the electrical properties of the semiconductor and makes it more suitable for electronic devices such as diodes and transistors.

While adding impurities, a small amount of suitable impurity is added to pure material, increasing its conductivity by many times.

“The process of adding impurities deliberately is termed as doping and the atoms that are used as an impurity are termed as dopants.”
Extrinsic semiconductors are further divided into two types of Semiconductors:

N-type semiconductors
P-type semiconductors

N-type semiconductors:

Definition:

“The semiconductor which is formed by adding pentavalent impurity to a pure semiconductor is called N-type semiconductors.”

Example:

An atom belonging to the fifth group such as antimony (Sb), phosphorus (P), or arsenic (Ar) has five valence electrons. When it is added to Ge and Si having four electrons in their outermost orbit then four valence electron-like (P) form covalent bonds with Si while the fifth valence electron provides a free electron.

P-type Semiconductors:

Definition:

“The semiconductor which is formed by adding trivalent impurity to a pure semiconductor is called P-type semiconductors.”

Example:

An atom belonging to the third group (trivalent0 such as aluminum (Al), boron (B), gallium (Ga), or Indium (I) has three valence electrons. When it is added to Ge and Si having four electrons in their outermost orbit then three valence electrons like aluminum (Al) form three covalent bonds with Ge and Si atoms.

In n-type semiconductor, when a pure semiconductor like Ge and Si is doped by pentavalent impurity then, four electrons out of five valence electrons bonds with the four electrons of Ge or Si. The fifth electron of the dopant is free. Thus, the impurity atom donates a free electron for conduction in the lattice and is called “Donar“.

These types of Semiconductors are the main building blocks of PNP & NPN transistor.

So, the number of free electron increases by the addition of an impurity, the negative charge carrier’s increase.

In p-type semiconductor, when a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity then, the three valence electrons of the impurity bonds with three of the four valence electrons of the semiconductor. This makes an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity atoms which are ready to accept bonded electrons are called “Acceptors“.

So, with the increase in the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge carriers) are increased.

What is Semiconductor?

Syed Zain Nasir — Sun, 13 Jun 2021 04:10:55 +0000

Hi guys, if you are searching for semiconductors then today we are here to fulfill your requirements. In this article, you will find the definition, description, types, examples, and every possible information about semiconductors.

The term “semiconducting” was used for the first time by Alessandro Volta in 1782. In 1833, Michael Faraday was a first person to observe a semiconductor. In 1901, the very first semiconductor device, called "cat whiskers," was presented.

Solid-state materials are commonly grouped into three classes: insulators, semiconductors, and conductors. Keep reading the article because we are going to discuss semiconductors in detail.

What is Semiconductor?

“Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally metals) and non-conductors or insulators (such as ceramics).”

It is a material whose electrical conductivity can be altered (called doping) through variations in temperature, applied fields, or adding impurities. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is between that of a good conductor (like copper) and that of an insulator (like rubber). Hence, the name semiconductor.

Examples of semiconductors

Silicon and Germanium are the best semiconductor materials. These materials have intermediate conductivity ranging between 10-6 to 10-4 Ω -1m-1. Gallium arsenide is the second most common semiconductor and is used in laser diodes, solar cells, and others.

Description of Semiconductors

Semiconductors are those materials which have electrical properties lies between those of insulator and conductors. At room temperature they have:

A partially filled valence band
A partially filled conduction band
A narrow energy gap (1eV)

At higher temperature thermal vibration may break some of the covalent bonds to produce free electrons that can participate in current conduction.

A pure semiconductor is an insulator at 0K. At this temperature, it has no electron in the conduction band. But with the increase in temperature, the electron jumps from valence band to the conduction band. Thus a vacancy of the electron is produced in the valence band which is called a hole and it behaves like a positive charge. So at room temperature, Ge and Si crystal becomes a semiconductor.

The ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by replacing or adding certain donor or acceptor atoms to this crystalline structure. That is done by adding a small amount of another element to the base material, either silicon or germanium.

Semiconductors are pure elements and composed of single species of atoms, such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and Tin (Sn) in column IV and selenium (Se) and tellurium (Te) in column VI of the periodic table. At low temperatures some conductors, semiconductors, and insulators may become super-conductors.

Semiconductor Devices

There are many semiconductor devices. Some of these are as follows:

The two-terminal devices are:

Diode (rectifier diode)
Gunn diode
Laser diode
PIN diode
Tunnel diode
Light-emitting diode (LED)
Photo transistor
Photocell
Solar cell

Three-terminal devices are:

Bipolar transistor
Field-effect transistor
Darlington transistor
Unijunction transistor
Silicon-controlled rectifier

Four-terminal devices are:

Photo coupler
Hall effect sensor (magnetic field sensor)

Types of Engineering Master’s Degrees

Syed Zain Nasir — Wed, 09 Jun 2021 12:52:48 +0000

Introduction of Engineering Master’s Degrees

A Master of Engineering is either a scholarly or expert graduate degree in the field of designing. A master’s degree is a scholastic capability granted to people who effectively exhibit a more significant level of mastery in a specific field of study. Here's a list of Online Master's Degree Programs.

Types of Engineering Master’s Degrees

Although there are numerous Types of Engineering Master’s Degrees but here I am going to discuss few of them:

Master’s Degree in Computer Engineering

In the wake of examining PC designing, engineers are set up to plan and introduce both PC equipment and programming. PC science ace certificate programs, similar to the one at Boston University, are offered through the electrical and PC designing offices.

Understudies can browse tracks in PC interchanges/organizations; equipment; programming; and network safety. Albeit some alumni programs require a proposal, this specific program gives understudies the decision of doing an exploration-based theory, an examination project or a blend of both.

Master’s Degree in Engineering Management

This program has an assortment of courses covering all regions in designing and in administration, including business law, showcasing, advancement the executives, innovation the board, and designing courses dependent on the understudy's space of interest. Offered both on the web and nearby, this program additionally offers residency and temporary job choices to understudies.

MBA in Engineering

MBA designing projects are ideal for understudies who are keen on designing however may likewise need professions in business, and these projects might be offered in a couple various ways. A few schools may offer a double degree program that permits understudies to acquire an expert certificate in designing and an MBA all the while. Different projects, similar to the one at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, are focused on people who as of now have a MBA and wish to procure a graduate degree in science.

Master’s Degree in Project Management Engineering

Task the executives designing projects get ready understudies for administrative roles in designing activities, corporate administration and particularly development projects. Venture the board programs like the one at University of California, Berkeley, are regularly offered through the common and natural designing office in light of the fact that the spaces of study are firmly related.

Notwithstanding courses like law for engineers; common frameworks and the climate; business basics for designing; lean development ideas and strategies; and innovation and maintainability, understudies go to workshops and perform research on momentum issues. US - Berkeley graduate understudies may likewise get associations.

Master’s Degree in Civil Engineering

Structural specialists are relied upon to see a business development of 20% from 2012-2022, as indicated by the U.S. Agency of Labour Statistics (BLS). High development is significantly more workable for the individuals who have ace degrees. Indeed, the department expresses that one out of five structural specialists hold ace degrees. Projects like the one at Cornell University plan understudies to progress to professions as compositional and designing directors. Check this Master's Degree List.

Bringing about a Master of Engineering in Civil and Environmental Engineering, this two-semester program expects understudies to finish a task just as both major-related and supporting courses. Understudies can browse focuses in primary mechanics and materials; ecological liquid mechanics and hydrology; natural cycles; geotechnical designing; and transportation frameworks designing.

Master’s Degree in Electronics Engineering

Hardware science certificate programs are regularly offered as electrical and gadgets designing projects. Notwithstanding, hardware designing is offered without anyone else at certain schools like Norfolk State University. NSU offers a Master of Science in Electronics Engineering program with courses in research techniques; interchanges frameworks designing; microcontrollers; progressed advanced plan; gadgets frameworks; simple coordinated frameworks; and VLSI frameworks plan. As well as offering both a postulation or non-theory choice, this program offers focuses in microelectronics; PC designing; correspondences; optoelectronics; unhindered electives controls; and computational cycles.

Master’s Degree in Electrical Engineering

Electrical designing projects are offered at numerous schools and might be offered as Master of Science projects or Master of Engineering programs, similar to the one at Boston University. BU's program offers fixations in signal handling and interchanges; strong state circuits, gadgets, and materials; electromagnetics and photonics; frameworks and control; and bioelectrical.

Electrical designing courses incorporate likelihood and measurable strategies; computerized signal handling; electromagnetic energy transmission; sun powered energy frameworks; remote interchanges; and fiber optics correspondence frameworks.

Master’s Degree in Software Engineering

Designers with four-year college educations in programming regularly fill in as computer programmers, PC programmers or programming engineers. Many acquire ace degree for professional success and may fill in as PC and data frameworks chiefs. Course themes incorporate establishments of computer programming; distributed computing; programming engineering and plan; remote organization security; portable equipment for programmers; and administration arranged.

Master’s in Chemical Engineering

Through getting an expert's in synthetic designing, understudies will acquire a more profound comprehension of designing standards and compound responses. Moreover, they will include involved insight inside a lab setting and the information to seek after a vocation inside the field of examination/the scholarly community upon graduation.

Through taking courses in cutting edge general science and synthetic designing labs, ongoing alumni will have great comprehension of how to deal with and store different kinds of substance compounds. We'll investigate the work development and middle compensation of five positions that new alumni may go into.
Master’s in Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Master's courses show understudies how to utilize PC applications to finish their tasks, creates inside and out information on Operations Management, Robotics Systems, Metallurgy, Advanced Materials Science, Sustainable Manufacturing, Engineering Business Management, and the sky is the limit from there.

Master’s in Aeronautical Engineering

The Master of Science in Aeronautics (MSA) is a multidisciplinary program that upgrades your insight into social sciences, information examination, displaying and reproduction, project the board, frameworks incorporation, applied exploration, measurements, innovation, and, above all, your specialization subject matter. With the Aeronautics graduate degree, you can investigate open doors in aircraft and air terminal activities and the executives, air traffic frameworks arranging, flying security, schooling, modern wellbeing, NextGen, exploration, and frameworks combination.

Engineering Licensing

Contingent upon the kind of designing you pick; you could conceivably be needed to be authorized. Designers who perform work for people in general and additionally have contracts with the public authority normally should be authorized. In spite of the fact that prerequisites may differ from one state to another, licensure is for the most part gotten by finishing designing authorizing tests.

Master’s of Engineering Degree Impact on Career

An Online Master's Degree in Engineering Management sets you up for an immense scope of profession choices in designing fields from compound to common, electrical to mechanical. As a designing supervisor, it will be your responsibility to choose and execute specialized goals for your association's activities.

What is Chemistry?

Syed Zain Nasir — Sun, 06 Jun 2021 03:36:10 +0000

Introduction:

Science is a systemized knowledge. Since the emergence of science, there arise the need to divide science into its various components which we call as division. Chemistry is one of the branches of science. It is sometimes referred to the ‘the central component of science’ as the knowledge of chemistry acts as a bridge in between physical and natural sciences such as biology.
Let us now look towards a proper definition of chemistry.

“Chemistry is defined as a branch of science which deals with the properties of states of matter and their chemical relationship”.

Chemistry involves the study of different chemical reactions which finds its applications in industrial, physical, and biological processes. Chemistry is basically the knowledge of all form of matter especially at their atomic and molecular level.

History of Chemistry:

The study of chemistry has been employing since the emergence of life. Our ancestors were used to decorate and preserve their wares with beautiful glazes. Yet the study of chemistry on a different level initiate when Jabir ibn Hayyan (known as Geber to Europeans) put forward his services in the field of chemistry as especially related to pharmacy and health.

Since then, different scientist put forward their contribution for the establishment of modern chemistry. If you were asked about the father of chemistry, the most suitable answer which comes in the mind is ‘Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier’ who is the author of the book “Elements in Chemistry” which was published in 1787. He compiled all the elements known at that time and also give name to oxygen and hydrogen.

Many other scientists established the basic standard to consider chemistry at the present level. Some of them are Robert Boyle, John Dalton, Berzilius. Photo Credit goes to Chemistry at TEP.

Classification of Chemistry:

With the advancement in the field of chemistry, the scientists classified chemistry into three branches:

Physical chemistry:

“Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry which involves the physical structure of chemical compounds as related to their way of reacting with other matter and the study of formation of bonds.”

Inorganic Chemistry:

“It is the branch of chemistry which is concerned with the compounds which does not contain carbon and hydrogen together in a molecule”.

Inorganic compounds include oxides, hydrides, salts, acids and bases etc. Some remarkable properties of inorganic compounds are that they have often high melting and boiling points, high or low electrical conductivity (based upon the structure of molecules) and their usage as pigments, varnishes and industrial uses.

Organic Chemistry:

“Organic Chemistry is the branch of chemistry which is concerned with the study of compounds containing carbon and hydrogen and tcoheir derivatives.”

The compounds containing carbon and hydrogen together in a molecule are known as hydrocarbons. Organic chemistry has found its present value due to the vastness of organic compounds. There are millions of organic compounds known till now due to unique property of carbon to link with other carbon atom, the property called catenation. Organic compounds were first thought to exist only in living organisms. But later, after the preparation of urea from ammonium cyanide (an inorganic compound) by Fredrick Wohler, it now includes the compounds which are being prepared in laboratory.

These branches of organic compounds are further sub divided into different branches. Some of them are listed below:

Analytical chemistry
Thermochemistry
Bio-chemistry
Nuclear chemistry
Environmental chemistry
Industrial chemistry

Applications of Study of Chemistry:

Every knowledge has its advantages. Likewise, the study of chemistry has also bought us about many applications and benefits. These benefits include industrially as well as biologically blessings. Some of them are given below:

Chemistry and Health:

Chemistry has played an important role in the advancement of standard of life. As we know, the basic unit of life is a ‘living cell’. However, the cell is further composed of molecular and sub-atomic particles. Therefore, the study of chemistry and biology are over-linked. The familiar example is of bio-molecules. Enzymes are biomolecules. They catalyses the bio-chemical reaction. Hence the study of chemistry enables us to have a look around these bio-catalysts as compared to other catalysts used in other non-living reactions.
The study of chemistry has a wide application in the field of pharmacy. Since all the drugs are to somehow chemicals, therefore one must know about basic chemistry in order to establish a new medicine or a drug.
Because of Chemistry, we got to introduced with new and unique elements, which are arranged in the periodic table with respect to their properties.
The study of chemistry has been advanced. For example, to diagnose a particular disease, the physician refers a patient to have a test to know values of particular biomolecules, hormones, etc. in the body. Thus, after having a look upon the results, the particular disease could be diagnosed.

Chemistry and Industries:

The study of chemistry is not only confined to the biochemical processes. in fact, it would not be false to say that our industries run to mostly upon the knowledge and principles of chemistry.
Through the use of study of chemistry, we are now able to prepare many organic as well as inorganic compounds which are being used as pesticides, fungicides, waxes, paints, varnishes and many other compounds.
Chemistry has taught us many other processes such as sublimation, distillation, purification etc. These processes are mainly based upon the principles of chemistry and involves our daily life processes.
Chemistry has also been involved in the production and preservation of vast amount of food material. The familiar example is that we know how to preserve different vegetables by pickling them. Although we have been using these techniques from the very beginning of life but it has been evolved recently after knowing the chemistry behind the process of pickling. Production of malt beverages is also an example of food involving chemical processes. Chemistry and Separation and purification of fossil fuels and metals.
Chemistry also helps in the development of new products, there's a method called Stoichiometry which is used to check the relation between ingrediants and products.
Nowadays, we are extracting metals and separating different fuels by using techniques which are being based by the knowledge of chemistry. The separation of fuels has been done by using a process known as fractional distillation. This technique is based upon the separation of fuels from raw petroleum by using density gradient. Low boiling point fuels (such as gasoline) are being separated by high boiling point fuels (such as kerosine oil). Similarly, metals are being separated by non-metallic ores by using magnets and other processes which involve basic chemistry.

These are some of the familiar daily uses of chemistry. However, we are hoping for betterment in the chemistry sciences to benefit mankind.

What is Biology?

Syed Zain Nasir — Fri, 04 Jun 2021 11:31:25 +0000

Introduction

Since the emergence of life on earth, there arise the need of man to distribute his knowledge into different parts for simplifying the basic understanding of man. Initially, the science was studied in a same subject but with the passage of time, it became very difficult to study every aspect of science in a same subject. Hence the science has been divided into different parts.
The topic of discussion in this article is ‘biology’. The term biology is actually an assemblage of two different Greek words which are bios (literal; life) and logos (literal; thought or reasoning). Hence the term biology means ‘The Scientific Study of Life’. It is basically a branch of science which deals with the living organisms and physical and chemical factors affecting on life.

Although we are using biological sciences since the emergence of life, but with the passage of time it has now became very vast in its types, applications and its aspects. The simple example arise here is that our ancestors were used to live in forests, whenever they get caught by some poison they begin to use natural herbs to treat that particular poison. This was the basic emergence of biological sciences. Since then, man has evolved the biological studies and made it to such a vast topic to discuss. Image Credit goes to Biology by TEP.

Classification of Biology

Likewise other subjects, biology has also been classified into different branches and types. These include;
Zoology: the study of animal and their behavior.
Botany: the study of plants and different physical and chemical factors affection growth of plants.
Human biology: the study of human life especially related to its health and behavior.

These portions of biology have been further divided into different branches. Some of them are as follows:

Anatomy
Histology
Physiology
Biochemistry
Microbiology
Embryology
Ethology
Genetics
Palaentology
Molecular biology
Ecology

Applications of biology

Biological sciences have become very vast in its applications. It has become very difficult to discuss every application in this discussion. Some of them are discussed here.

While discussing the applications of biology, the contributions of biology towards the way of living style should be discussed. Biology has established the standard of living by providing the basic information of hygiene and physical fitness.
The biological sciences have provided us with treatment to many diseases in the form of medicine, surgery and vaccines. Now we can perform many tests i.e. ECG, EEG, ultrasound etc. to pervent diseases.
Since the discovery of microorganisms by Antoni Van Leuwenhoek and Robert Hooke, the scientist began to work on these tiny living creatures. Later it was found these were the causative agents for most diseases. The improvements in biological study gave the power to man to prepare particular antibiotics to treat those microorganisms caused diseases. Today, we are having those medicines in the form of different antibiotics. Antibiotics are the chemical substances which control the growth of bacteria by either stopping their production or by killing them. The first antibiotic was prepared by Alexander Flaming by a fungi called as penicillin. Since this preparation, there are many other antibiotics which have been prepared in the laboratory using biological techniques.
Today, man has also known about the virus which causes diseases in the living organisms. These viruses are neither living nor non-living. These viruses became a topic to discuss by biologists due to its particular nature. Hence with the advancement of biological studies, we have reached to point where we could stop the diseases caused by these viruses. The main type of advancement to stop viral diseases is by the use of vaccines. Vaccines are actually of different kinds. Most vaccines are actually dead or weak pathogens or viruses which work with the immune system of living organisms and induce the immunity in those organisms. Today, biologists are able to synthesize vaccines against many viral diseases. Some familiar examples are of vaccines against mumps, measles, polio virus etc. Polio virus was considered as an epidemic in the 20th century. But with the advancement of study on polio virus, biologists are now able to prepare vaccine in the laboratory and now it is considered to be eradicated from the world.
Another achievement in the biological study is the ‘Surgery’. It is actually a process by which a part of living body has been opened by cutting and the organ or tissue being damage is removed or replaced by the surgeon. Then the wound is closed by placing stitches. It requires great technique to be handled. There are different types of surgeries being performed by the surgeons and biologists are working on this technique to get further advancement. Some familiar examples of surgery are surgery of appendix, liver transplant, kidney transplant, etc. We hope to get more advancement in this technique in future.
Biological studies also include study of genetics in which a student learns about the nucleotides and DNA relationship. There are various aspects of this study. With the help of genetics, we came to known about different diseases as related to chromosomes and genes. The most familiar example is of Diabetes Mellitus which is also a genetic disorder which occur due to disarrangement of nucleotides in a gene. Biologist are now working to cure this disease. Genetic engineering is gaining popularity to cure many diseases. Gene therapy has been done practically. It includes the replacement of a defective genes with the normal gene. The Human genome project has also been published to provide the sequence of nucleotide to a particular gene. This field is expected to be used by genetic engineers in near future.
We can now find the age of a dead fossil with the help of biological studies through Carbon Dating. Radioactive fossils are being used by scientist to get the exact age of fossil. Through this study, we became able to know about 76000 years old mummified brain.
There was a time when there was no cure for even fever but now because of biology we are able to cure almost all major disease i.e. check this ECG MATLAB Simulation.
The biological study has also provided us with the knowledge of evolution processes. Since Darwin published the theory of evolution in ‘the origin of species’, we are now known to the evolutionary changes done by the passage of time which will tell us about our ancestors and also help us to prepare for upcoming evolutionary changes.

What is Prototyping?

Syed Zain Nasir — Fri, 04 Jun 2021 00:14:05 +0000

Hello friends, I hope you all are having a great time. Today, the topic at hand is " Prototyping". You might have experienced the process of prototyping, in case you are someone related to the industrial field or a person related to software and stuff. Let me define it first, so that you may decide later either you have been a part of it, or not.

Definition of Prototyping

"Materialization of a raw intangible idea into physical configuration or a tangible form is called Prototyping."
I think all of us have done that in different ways!

Example of Prototyping

Let me explain this whole prototyping thing with an everyday example for your understanding.

Let's suppose you are a product designer who is specialized in the niche of cooking utensils and tools.
A client approaches you for designing a spatula, a large spoon of silicon used in cooking that scrapes the sides of your pot like crazy!
He explains the basic specs and design he has in his mind and hands over the rest to you.
What would you do now? You would open your laptop, start making your sketch in a 3D form in software like AutoCAD, SketchUp, or whatever you like.
Afterward, you would show the design to your client and after his approval, this spatula would go for the 3D printing in the desired material.
This process of converting a rough idea which goes through different stages, into a physical product is called prototyping.

Types of Prototypes

There are different types of prototyping depending on the need and area of use, we'll be discussing some of them in the next section. This section is intended to give a brief introduction only.
Miniature Prototype; creating a mini version of the thing you want to produce.

Live Data Prototype; creating an almost similar prototype to check if the website or the application would be functional or not.
Feasibility prototype; as the name suggests, it only intends to check the feasibility and reliability of your product or more precisely, your idea!
Video Prototype; a short clip that shows the working of your product or your idea.
High fidelity prototype; a prototype that is almost identical to your actual product.
Low fidelity prototype; a prototype representing the idea behind the product but is not like the actual product.
Rapid Prototyping; small prototypes are designed rapidly using 3D Printing.

Now you must be thinking, "What are the tools we use for prototyping?"

If you are keen on the initial digital design of your product or your website or maybe your app, then there are countless available options in the market such as AutoCAD, Solid Works, Solid Edge, Grunt, SketchUp, Webflow, and Invision among many others.
After the digital design of your product, a 3D printer is required for prototyping it in a 3D object, which is another story for another day, how 3D printing works!

The example of the spatula we discussed earlier in the article was about a physical product or you can say idea, what if you have to prototype an app or a website? Let us break it down into simple steps.

Prototyping Process for an App or Website

Every scientific research starts with a problem or a question, when designing an app or website, you need to know the cause or purpose first.
Let's assume, you have to design an app for fitness freaks, the first and foremost step would be the research, you would research the expectations for basic features and functionalities of the app, for this purpose you can use a low fidelity prototype to analyze the public expectations.

The design and templates are made using the app for digital designs such as AutoCAD, SketchUp, origami, and a lot more available options.
After the research through a low fidelity prototype, you would now design a high fidelity prototype i.e an app with one or two features for public interaction.
A video prototype can also be made to give a demo of the functionalities of your app.
As you have checked the functionality and working of your app a according to consumer feedback, it is ready to be released in the market in its full version.
Now you know how the prototyping process is carried out for an app or a website design, imagine the difficulties you would face without it!

Applications of Prototyping

Now, you must be thinking, Where we use prototyping? or simply putting it, what are the applications of prototyping. Here are some of the shortlisted ones among the countless applications of prototyping;

Manufacturing and agile tooling
Assembly parts
Medical Equipment
Artificial limbs and bone implants
Dental implants
Apparel and clothing
Research and development
Product design
Electronics

Web development and app development

These are some of the areas influenced by the prototyping process, you can read a detailed account of each one in our comprehensive article about prototyping.

Advantages of Prototyping

Whenever we discuss a topic it is almost impossible to discuss it without discussing its advantages, let's see a few of them,
Prototyping provides room for a lot of trial and error, you can test your idea without investing a huge sum of money, who wants to go bankrupt!

Prototyping can attract investors and public attention, both of these are the success markers of the project.
Time is money in this fast-paced world, prototyping saves your time, if your product or idea can't do well in the market, your prototype would help you recognize it in the initial stages of research and development.
Feedback is one of the best bets of prototyping, you can make your design better by analyzing the results generated by the user interaction of your prototypes.
What else you need when you can save your time, money, and reputation by a simple and cost-effective process!

Disadvantages of prototyping

Feedback is the necessary evil in the prototyping process, a lot of consumer involvement sometimes makes it difficult to cater to the expectations of the general public.
Constant feedback and approval system makes prototyping a slow process.
The users sometimes confuse the prototype with an actual product which makes them negatively think of the product, this damages the brand reputation in general.
Constant testing and redesigning the prototyping process a bit costly.
Anyhow, the benefits outweigh the disadvantages in every case, you can implement the process by controling the above-mentioned parameters.

So friends that's all about the basics of prototyping, i hope you have learnt something new from the article. See you with the next one soon! Have a good day ahead!