Understanding the basics of Elixir’s concurrency model

This article was originally published on my blog at ieftimov.com.

If you come from an object-oriented background, you might have tried concurrencyin your favourite OO language before. Your mileage will vary, but in generalOO languages are harder to work with when it comes to concurrency. This is dueto their nature - they are designed to keep state in memory and require moreexpertise and experience to be successful with.

How does Elixir stand up to other languages when it comes to concurrency? Well,for starters just being functional and immutable is a big win - no state tomanage. But also, Elixir has more goodies packing under the hood and in itsstandard library.

Being based on Erlang’s virtual machine (a.k.a. the BEAM), Elixir uses processesto run any and all code. Note that from here on any time we mention processes,unless specified otherwise, we are referring to BEAM processes, not OS processes.

Elixir’s processes are isolated from one another, they do not share any memoryand run concurrently. They are very lightweight and the BEAM is capable ofrunning many thousands of them at the same time. That’s why Elixir exposesprimitives for creating processes, communicating between them and variousmodules on process management.

Let’s see how we can create processes and send messages between them.

Creating processes

One of the simplest (yet powerful) tools in Elixir’s toolbelt is IEx - Elixir’sREPL, short for Interactive Elixir. If we jump into IEx and run h self, wewill get the following output:

iex(1)> h self

                      def self()

  @spec self() :: pid()

Returns the PID (process identifier) of the calling process.

Allowed in guard clauses. Inlined by the compiler.

As you can see, self() is a built-in function in Elixir which returns the PID(process identifier) of the calling process. If you run it in IEx it willreturn the PID of IEx:

iex(2)> self
#PID<0.102.0>

Now, just like IEx is a BEAM process, with its own PID, it can also createnew processes. In fact, any BEAM process can spawn BEAM processes. This isdone using the Kernel.spawn/1 function:

iex(3)> spawn(fn -> 1 + 1 end)
#PID<0.108.0>

spawn/1 creates a new process which invokes the function provided as argument,fn -> 1 + 1 end. What you might notice is that we do not see the return valueof the anonymous function because the function ran in a different process. Whatwe get instead is the PID of the spawned process.

Another thing worth noticing is that once we spawn a process it will run rightaway, which means that the function will be immediately executed. We can checkthat using the Process.alive?/1 function:

iex(4)> pid = spawn(fn -> 1 + 1 end)
#PID<0.110.0>

iex(5)> Process.alive?(pid)
false

While we don’t need to look at the Process module in depth right now, it hasquite a bit more functions available for working with processes. You can exploreits documentation here.

Now, let’s look at receiving messages.

Receiving messages in processes

For the purpose of our example, let’s imagine we open a new IEx sessionand we tell the IEx process (a.k.a. self) that it might receive a messagethat it should react to. If this makes you scratch your head a bit, rememberthat since IEx is a BEAM process it can receive messages just like any otherBEAM process.

The messages that we would like our IEx process to receive will be:

• tuple containing :hello atom and a string with a name (e.g. {:hello, "Jane"})
• tuple containing the :bye atom and a string with a name (e.g. {:bye, "John"})

When the process receives the message in the first case it should reply with“Hello Jane”, while in the second case it should reply with “Bye John”. If wecould use the cond macro in Elixir, it would look something like:

cond message do
  {:hello, name} -> "Hello #{name}"
  {:bye, name} -> "Bye #{name}"
end

To receive messages in a process we cannot use cond, but Elixir provides uswith a function receive/1 which takes a block as an argument. Althoughit’s not cond, it looks very similar to the example above because it lets ususe pattern-matching:

receive do
  {:hello, name} -> "Hello #{name}"
  {:bye, name} -> "Bye #{name}"
end

What you’re seeing here usage of BEAM’s actor model for concurrency in Elixir.If you’re not familiar with the model worry not - you can read an interestingELI5 about ithere on Dev.to, or you can just keep on reading and by the end of this article you should have a good idea about it.

The receive function takes the received message and tries to pattern-match it to one of the statements in the block. Obviously, it accepts not just a value to return but also a function call. As you can imagine, receive/1 is what is called when the mailbox of the process gets a new message in.

Now that we fixed up the actions on the mailbox of our process, how can we send a message to our IEx process?

This is done via the send/2 function. The function takes the PID and the message itself as arguments. For our example, let’s send the following message to our IEx process:

iex(1)> send self(), {:hello, "John"}
{:hello, "John"}

What you see here is the message being dropped in IEx’s mailbox. This means that we need to invoke the receive function in our IEx session so we can process the messages in the mailbox:

iex(2)> receive do
...(2)> {:hello, name} -> "Hello #{name}"
...(2)> {:bye, name} -> "Bye #{name}"
...(2)> end
"Hello John"

Right after executing the receive block the message will be immediately processed and we will see "Hello John" returned.

What if we never receive a message?

One thing to notice here is that if we would just write the receive block in our IEx session it would block until the process receives a message.That’s expected - if there is no message in the mailbox matching any of the patterns, the current process will wait until a matching message arrives. This is the default behaviour of receive/1.

Obviously, if we get ourselves stuck in such way we can always stop the IEx session by using Ctrl+C. But, what if a process in our application gets stuck?How can we tell it that it should stop waiting after a certain amount of time if it does not receive a message?

One nicety that Elixir provides us with is setting a timeout using after:

iex(6)> receive do
...(6)> {:hello, name} -> "Hello #{name}"
...(6)> {:bye, name} -> "Bye #{name}"
...(6)> after
...(6)> 1_000 -> "Nothing after 1s"
...(6)> end
"Nothing after 1s"

What happens here is that the timeout function is executed after 1000milliseconds pass and the receive/1 function exits (hence stops blocking).This prevents processes hanging around waiting forever for a matching message toarrive in their mailboxes.

Long-running processes

So far we were looking at sending and receiving messages to the same process -the IEx process itself. This is quite a simple example and won’t help when we would like to put processes into action in a production application.

At this point, you might be wondering how to actually spawn a process that would react to multiple incoming messages, instead of just (ab)using the IEx process with the receive/1 function.

Well, to do this we have to make a process run infinitely (or until we ask it to die). How? By creating an infinite loop in the process itself.

WTF you mean by “an infinite loop”?!

Yeah, I know, it feels weird, doesn’t it? Here’s the thing - the BEAM has an optimisation in it, so-called a last-call optimisation (read Joe Armstrong’s explanation of this optimisationhere),where if the last call in a function is a call to the same function, Elixir will not allocate a new stack frame on the call stack. In fact, it will just jump to the beginning of the same function (instead of running another instance of it), which will prevent a stack overflow happening to our program.

This means that it’s virtually impossible to smash the stack in the BEAM languages (Erlang & Elixir), if we are just a bit careful when composing these self-invoking functions.

Long-running processes, continued

Let’s look at a small module with a single function:

defmodule MyProcess do
  def start do
    receive do
      {:hello, name} ->
        IO.puts "Hello #{name}!"
        start()
      {:bye, name} ->
        IO.puts "Bye #{name}. Shutdown in 3, 2, 1..."
    end
  end
end

The MyProcess.start function when run will wait for a message to arrive in the process’ mailbox. Then, it will try to pattern match on the arrived message and execute the associated code. One trick is that at the end of the first case we execute the start function again, which will create an infinite loop in the process, therefore having the process waiting for messages forever.

Let’s look how this will work in IEx:

iex(1)> pid = spawn(MyProcess, :start, [])
#PID<0.120.0>

iex(2)> send pid, {:hello, "Ilija"}
Hello Ilija!
{:hello, "Ilija"}

iex(3)> send pid, {:hello, "Jane"}
Hello Jane!
{:hello, "Jane"}

iex(4)> send pid, {:bye, "Jane"}
Bye Jane. Shutdown in 3, 2, 1...
{:bye, "Jane"}

First, we use spawn/3 to create a process that will run the MyProcess.run function. spawn/3 is a flavour of spawn/1 - the only difference is that spawn/3 knows how to run a named function in a process, while spawn/1 takes only anonymous functions as arguments.

Then, you can see that every time we send a {:hello, "Name"} message to the process (using send/2), we see the process printing back the greeting. Once we send the {:bye, "Jane"} message the process prints that it’s shutting down.

How so? Well, if you look at the MyProcess.start function you will notice that it does not invoke itself after it prints out the shutdown message. This means that once it handles that message the MyProcess.start function will finish and the process will die.

Let’s test that in IEx, using the Process.alive?/1 function:

iex(1)> pid = spawn MyProcess, :start, []
#PID<0.109.0>

iex(2)> Process.alive? pid
true

iex(3)> send pid, {:hello, "Ilija"}
Hello Ilija!
{:hello, "Ilija"}

iex(4)> Process.alive? pid
true

iex(5)> send pid, {:bye, "Ilija"}
Bye Ilija. Shutdown in 3, 2, 1...
{:bye, "Ilija"}

iex(6)> Process.alive? pid
false

Now that we know how to send and receive multiple messages to a process inElixir, you might be wondering what is a good use-case to use processes for?

The answer is: keeping state.

Keeping state using processes

You might find this weird, but this is a classic example to keeping state in Elixir. While our example here will not take care of storing state on disk, cover all edge-cases that might occur or be a bullet-proof solution, I hope it will get your brain juices flowing on processes and how to use them.

Let’s write a Store module that will have a start function. It should spawn a process which will invoke a function of the same module, for now, called foo:

# store.exs
defmodule Store do
  def start do
    spawn( __MODULE__ , :foo, [%{}])
  end

  def foo(map) do
    IO.puts "Nothing so far"
  end
end

Let’s briefly dissect the Store.start function: what it does is it spawns anew process calling the foo/1 function and it passes an empty map (%{}) as an argument to the function. If the special keyword __MODULE__ throws you off, it’s just an alias to the module name:

iex(1)> defmodule Test do
...(1)> def eql?, do: __MODULE__ == Test
...(1)> end

iex(2)> Test.eql?
true

This means that when we call Store.start we will immediately see the output of the function in the process. Right after, the process will die:

iex(4)> pid = Store.start
Nothing so far...
#PID<0.117.0>

iex(5)> Process.alive? pid
false

This means that we need to make foo/1 a function that will loop forever. Or at least until we tell it to stop.

Let’s rename foo/1 to loop/1 and make it loop forever:

defmodule Store do
  def start do
    spawn( __MODULE__ , :loop, [%{}])
  end

  def loop(state) do
    receive do
      loop(state)
    end
  end
end

If we run this module now in an IEx session the process will work forever. Instead of doing that, let’s add a special “system” message that we can send to the process so we can force it to shut down:

defmodule Store do
  def start do
    spawn( __MODULE__ , :loop, [%{}])
  end

  def loop(state) do
    receive do
      {:stop, caller_pid} ->
        send caller_pid, "Shutting down"
      _ ->
        loop(state)
    end
  end
end

So now, you see that when there’s no match, the Store.loop/1 function will just recurse, but when the :stop message is received it will just send a"Shutting down" message to the calling PID.

iex(1)> pid = Store.start
#PID<0.125.0>

iex(2)> send pid, {:stop, self()}
{:stop, #PID<0.102.0>}

iex(3)> flush()
"Shutting down."
:ok

What you’re seeing here is a very simple example of sending messages between two processes - the Store process and our IEx session process. When we send the :stop message we also send the PID of the IEx session (self), which is then used by Store.loop/1 to send the reply back. At the end, instead of writing a whole receive block for the IEx session we just invoke flush,which flushes the IEx process mailbox and returns all of the messages in the mailbox at that time.

If you’re feeling deep in the rabbit hole now worry not - we are going to address keeping state in a process right away!

Let’s say that our Store will accept four commands:

1. stop - the one we already implemented, which stops the Store process
2. put - adds a new key-value pair to the state map
3. get - fetches a value for a given key from the state map
4. get_all - fetches all of the key-value pairs that are stored in the state map

Putting a value

Let’s implement the put command:

defmodule Store do
  def start do
    spawn( __MODULE__ , :loop, [%{}])
  end

  def loop(state) do
    receive do
      {:put, key, value} ->
        new_state = Map.put(state, key, value)
        loop(new_state)
      {:stop, caller} ->
        send caller, "Shutting down."
      _ ->
        loop(state)
    end
  end
end

When we send a tuple containing {:put, :foo, :bar} to the process, it will add the :foo => :bar pair to the state map. The key here is that it will invoke State.loop/1 again with the updated state (new_state). This will make sure that the key-value pair we added will be included in the new state on the next recursion of the function.

Getting values

Let’s implement get so we can test get and put together via an IEx session:

defmodule Store do
  def start do
    spawn( __MODULE__ , :loop, [%{}])
  end

  def loop(state) do
    receive do
      {:stop, caller} ->
        send caller, "Shutting down."
      {:put, key, value} ->
        new_state = Map.put(state, key, value)
        loop(new_state)
      {:get, key, caller} ->
        send caller, Map.fetch(state, key)
        loop(state)
      _ ->
        loop(state)
    end
  end
end

Just like with the other commands, there’s no magic around get. We use Map.fetch/2 to get the value for the key passed. Also, we take the PID of the caller so we can send back to the caller the value found in the map:

iex(1)> pid = Store.start
#PID<0.119.0>

iex(2)> send pid, {:put, :name, "Ilija"}
{:put, :name, "Ilija"}

iex(3)> send pid, {:get, :name, self()}
{:get, :name, #PID<0.102.0>}

iex(4)> flush
{:ok, "Ilija"}
:ok

iex(5)> send pid, {:put, :surname, "Eftimov"}
{:put, :surname, "Eftimov"}

iex(6)> send pid, {:get, :surname, self()}
{:get, :surname, #PID<0.102.0>}

iex(7)> flush
{:ok, "Eftimov"}
:ok

If we look at the “conversation” we have with the Store process, at the beginning, we set a :name key with the value "Ilija" and we retrieve it after (and we see the reply using flush). Then we do the same exercise by adding a new key to the map in the Store, this time :surname with the value"Eftimov".

From the “conversation” perspective, the key piece here is us sending self() -the PID of our current process (the IEx session) - so the Store process knows where to send the reply to.

Getting a dump of the store

Right before we started writing the Store module we mentioned that we will also implement a get_all command, which will return all of the contents of the Store. Let’s do that:

defmodule Store do
  def start do
    spawn( __MODULE__ , :loop, [%{}])
  end

  def loop(state) do
    receive do
      {:stop, caller} ->
        send caller, "Shutting down."
      {:put, key, value} ->
        new_state = Map.put(state, key, value)
        loop(new_state)
      {:get, key, caller} ->
        send caller, Map.fetch(state, key)
        loop(state)
      {:get_all, caller } ->
        send caller, state
        loop(state)
      _ ->
        loop(state)
    end
  end
end

If you expected something special here, I am very sorry to disappoint you. The implementation of the get_all command is to return the whole state map of the process to the sender.

Let’s test it out:

iex(1)> pid = Store.start
#PID<0.136.0>

iex(2)> send pid, {:put, :name, "Jane"}
{:put, :name, "Jane"}

iex(3)> send pid, {:put, :surname, "Doe"}
{:put, :surname, "Doe"}

iex(4)> send pid, {:get_all, self()}
{:get_all, #PID<0.102.0>}

iex(5)> flush
%{name: "Jane", surname: "Doe"}
:ok

As expected, once we add two key-value pairs to the Store, when we invoke the get_all command the Store process sends back the whole state map.

While this is a very small and contrived example, the skeleton we followed hereby keeping state by using recursion, sending commands and replies back and forth to the calling process is actually used quite a bit in Erlang and Elixir.

A small disappointment

First, I am quite happy you managed to get to the end of this article.I believe that once I understood the basics of the concurrency model of Elixir,by going through these exercises were eye-opening for me, and I hope they werefor you as well.

Understanding how to use processes by sending and receiving messages is paramount knowledge that you can use going forward on your Elixir journey.

Now, as promised - a small disappointment.

For more than 90% of the cases when you want to write concurrent code in Elixir, you will not use processes like here. In fact, you won’t (almost) ever use the send/2 and receive/1 functions. Seriously.

Why? Well, that’s because Elixir comes with this thingy called OTP, that will help you do much cooler things with concurrency, without writing any of this low-level process management code. Of course, this should not stop you from employing processes when you feel that you strongly need them, or when you want to experiment and learn.

But, that’s a topic for the next blog post, where we’ll dive more in OTP and some of its behaviours.

Until then, where do you see processes as a potential use case in your projects/work?

Some more reading

If you would like to read a bit more, here are a couple of links that are worth checking out:

• Processes on Elixir’s“Getting started” guide
• Long-lived processes in Elixir by German Velasco on Thoughtbot’s blog
• Process on Hexdocs.pm
• Endless recursion on theElixir Forum

Comments

[Nikola Stojaković]

Great article Ilija! As someone who has no prior experience in Elixir (just started learning it) nor concurrent programming, I can say that this article was quite helpful to me. I just noticed one minor issue; I think you forgot to put the default clause in example which just loops infinitely.

defmodule Store do
    def start do
        spawn(__MODULE__, :loop, [%{}])
    end

    def loop(state) do
        receive do
            _ ->
                loop(state)
        end
    end
end

[Ilija Eftimov]

Hey Nikola! Thanks for the kind words, I am glad you liked it.

True, it seems like I've skipped the default clause - I will update the article and add it, thanks!