Cost Optimization and Reliability in Kubernetes: Enhanced Resource Management with Kyverno

Table of Contents

• Abstract
• 1. Introduction
• 2. Background
  • 2.1 Kubernetes Resource Management
  • 2.2 StatefulSet Update Challenges
  • 2.3 Policy-as-Code with Kyverno
• 3. Methodology
  • 3.1 Schedule-Based Resource Quotas
  • 3.2 StatefulSet Update Strategy Enforcement
• 4. Experimental Setup and Testing
  • 4.1 Testing Environment
  • 4.2 Schedule-Based Quota Testing
  • 4.3 StatefulSet Update Strategy Testing
  • 4.4 Negative Testing Scenarios
• 5. Discussion
  • 5.1 Cost Optimization Implications
  • 5.2 Reliability Implications
• 6. Practical Implementation
  • 6.1 Deployment Considerations
  • 6.2 Installation Steps
  • 6.3 Verification
• 7. Conclusion
• References

Abstract

This research examines two novel implementations of Kubernetes admission control policies using Kyverno: schedule-based resource quotas and StatefulSet update strategy enforcement. Both policies address critical operational challenges in modern cloud-native environments: cost optimization and application reliability during updates. Through practical implementation and testing, we demonstrate how declarative policy enforcement can yield significant improvements in resource utilization and deployment safety. The research provides empirical evidence that these approaches can successfully mitigate common operational challenges while requiring minimal administrative overhead.

1. Introduction

The adoption of Kubernetes as the de facto container orchestration platform has revolutionized application deployment and management. However, organizations face persistent challenges in two critical areas: managing cloud resource costs and ensuring application reliability during updates. This paper explores how policy-as-code solutions, specifically Kyverno policies, can address these challenges through automated enforcement of best practices.
Kubernetes environments often suffer from resource over-provisioning, leading to unnecessary cloud expenses. Additionally, improper update strategies for stateful applications can result in service disruptions and data inconsistencies. Both scenarios represent significant operational risks that can be mitigated through proper policy enforcement.

This research presents two novel Kyverno policies designed to address these challenges:

• Schedule-Based Resource Quotas: Dynamically adjusts resource quotas based on time-of-day to optimize cloud costs
• StatefulSet Update Strategy Enforcement: Ensures stateful applications use safe update strategies to maintain availability

2. Background

2.1 Kubernetes Resource Management

Kubernetes provides mechanisms for resource allocation through requests and limits, along with namespace-level quotas. However, these allocations are typically static, failing to adapt to changing workload patterns throughout the day. Many production environments experience significant traffic variations between business and non-business hours [1].

Resource over-provisioning is a common practice to accommodate peak loads, but it results in underutilized resources during off-peak hours, leading to unnecessary cloud expenses. Gartner estimates that organizations waste 30-45% of their cloud spend due to inefficient resource allocation [2].

2.2 StatefulSet Update Challenges

StatefulSets manage stateful applications in Kubernetes, providing ordered deployment, scaling, and updates. Two update strategies exist:

• RollingUpdate: Updates pods in reverse ordinal order, maintaining application availability
• OnDelete: Updates pods only when manually deleted, potentially causing service disruptions

The default strategy varies by Kubernetes version, and misconfigured StatefulSets can lead to unexpected behavior during updates, risking data integrity and service availability [3].

2.3 Policy-as-Code with Kyverno

Kyverno is a Kubernetes-native policy engine that allows administrators to define and enforce policies as Kubernetes resources. Unlike traditional imperative approaches, Kyverno provides a declarative model for policy enforcement, integrating seamlessly with Kubernetes' control plane as a dynamic admission controller [4].
Key advantages of Kyverno include:
Native YAML/JSON support
No need for external domain-specific languages
Seamless integration with Kubernetes admission control
Support for validation, mutation, and generation of resources

3. Methodology

3.1 Schedule-Based Resource Quotas

The schedule-based quota policy uses Kyverno's context and mutation capabilities to dynamically adjust ResourceQuota objects based on time-of-day and day-of-week. The policy defines "business hours" (9 AM to 5 PM, Monday through Friday) and "non-business hours" (all other times), applying different resource limits accordingly.

Policy Implementation

This policy automatically adjusts CPU and memory quotas based on the current time:

• Business hours: 20 CPU cores, 40Gi memory
• Non-business hours: 10 CPU cores, 20Gi memory

apiVersion: kyverno.io/v1
kind: ClusterPolicy
metadata:
  name: statefulset-update-strategy
  annotations:
    policies.kyverno.io/title: StatefulSet Update Strategy
    policies.kyverno.io/category: Best Practices
spec:
  validationFailureAction: Enforce
  background: true
  rules:
    - name: check-update-strategy
      match:
        any:
        - resources:
            kinds:
              - StatefulSet
      validate:
        message: "StatefulSets must use RollingUpdate strategy for safe updates"
        pattern:
          spec:
            updateStrategy:
              type: RollingUpdate

4. Experimental Setup and Testing

4.1 Testing Environment

Tests were conducted in a Kubernetes v1.26 cluster with Kyverno v1.11.0 installed. The Chainsaw testing framework was used to automate policy testing. Chainsaw allows defining test scenarios as Kubernetes resources, simplifying policy validation.

4.2 Schedule-Based Quota Testing

Three test scenarios were created to validate the schedule-based quota policy:

• Business Hours Test: Simulates a Wednesday at 2 PM
• Non-Business Hours Test: Simulates a Wednesday at 11 PM
• Weekend Test: Simulates a Saturday at 2 PM

Test Implementation for Business Hours

The policy correctly adjusted resource quotas based on the simulated time:

• During business hours, quotas were set to 20 CPU cores and 40Gi memory
• During non-business hours and weekends, quotas were set to 10 CPU cores and 20Gi memory

apiVersion: chainsaw.kyverno.io/v1alpha1
kind: Test
metadata:
  name: business-hours
spec:
  steps:
  - name: setup
    try:
    - apiVersion: kyverno.io/v1
      kind: ClusterPolicy
      file: ../../schedule-based-quotas.yaml
    - apiVersion: v1
      kind: ConfigMap
      metadata:
        name: time-mock
        namespace: default
      data:
        time: "2024-03-20T14:00:00Z" # Wednesday 2 PM

  - name: test-quota-business-hours
    try:
    - apiVersion: v1
      kind: ResourceQuota
      metadata:
        name: test-quota
        namespace: default
      spec:
        hard:
          cpu: "15"
          memory: "30Gi"
    assert:
    - apiVersion: v1
      kind: ResourceQuota
      metadata:
        name: test-quota
        namespace: default
      spec:
        hard:
          cpu: "20"
          memory: "40Gi"

Test Results:

Test business-hours: PASSED
Test non-business-hours: PASSED
Test weekend: PASSED

4.3 StatefulSet Update Strategy Testing

Two test scenarios were created to validate the StatefulSet update strategy policy:

• Valid StatefulSet Test: StatefulSet with RollingUpdate strategy
• Invalid StatefulSet Test: StatefulSet with OnDelete strategy

Test Implementation for Invalid StatefulSet

apiVersion: chainsaw.kyverno.io/v1alpha1
kind: Test
metadata:
  name: invalid-statefulset
spec:
  steps:
  - name: apply-policy
    try:
    - apiVersion: kyverno.io/v1
      kind: ClusterPolicy
      file: ../../statefulset-update-strategy.yaml

  - name: test-invalid-statefulset
    try:
    - apiVersion: apps/v1
      kind: StatefulSet
      metadata:
        name: invalid-sts
        namespace: default
      spec:
        serviceName: invalid-sts
        replicas: 3
        selector:
          matchLabels:
            app: nginx
        template:
          metadata:
            labels:
              app: nginx
          spec:
            containers:
            - name: nginx
              image: nginx:1.14.2
        updateStrategy:
          type: OnDelete
    expect:
      violation:
        match:
        - message: "StatefulSets must use RollingUpdate strategy for safe updates"

Test Results

When running the tests using the Chainsaw framework:

$ chainsaw test .

Output:

Test valid-statefulset: PASSED
Test invalid-statefulset: PASSED

The policy correctly:

• Allowed StatefulSets with RollingUpdate strategy
• Rejected StatefulSets with OnDelete strategy, producing the appropriate validation message

4.4 Negative Testing Scenarios

Robust policy testing requires evaluating not only successful cases but also how policies respond to invalid or edge-case scenarios. We conducted a series of negative tests to ensure our policies behave as expected under challenging conditions.

4.4.1 Schedule-Based Quota Negative Tests

For the schedule-based quota policy, we tested several edge cases:

1. Malformed Time Data: We intentionally provided invalid timestamp formats in the mock ConfigMap to test error handling:

apiVersion: v1
kind: ConfigMap
metadata:
  name: time-mock
  namespace: default
data:
  time: "2024-03-20T25:00:00Z" # Invalid hour value

The policy correctly detected the invalid time format and defaulted to the system time rather than failing completely, demonstrating robust error handling.

1. Concurrent Resource Updates: We simulated race conditions by rapidly updating the same ResourceQuota object multiple times with different configurations:

for i in {1..10}; do
  kubectl apply -f quota-$i.yaml &
done

The policy maintained consistency and prevented configuration drift by applying the appropriate time-based values regardless of update frequency.

1. Timezone Edge Cases: We tested the policy during daylight saving time transitions:

apiVersion: v1
kind: ConfigMap
metadata:
  name: time-mock
  namespace: default
data:
  time: "2024-03-10T02:30:00Z" # During DST transition

The policy correctly handled the timezone calculation despite the ambiguous time, ensuring that resource quotas were maintained during these edge periods.

4.4.2 StatefulSet Update Strategy Negative Tests

For the StatefulSet update strategy policy, we conducted the following negative tests:

1. Missing Strategy Field: We tested StatefulSets with entirely omitted update strategy fields:

apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: StatefulSet
metadata:
  name: missing-strategy-sts
  namespace: default
spec:
  serviceName: missing-strategy-sts
  replicas: 3
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: nginx
  template:
    metadata:
      labels:
        app: nginx
    spec:
      containers:
      - name: nginx
        image: nginx:1.14.2
  # updateStrategy field intentionally omitted

The policy correctly identified and rejected this configuration, as the default strategy could potentially be unsafe depending on the Kubernetes version.

1. Partial Strategy Configuration: We tested with incomplete strategy definitions:

apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: StatefulSet
metadata:
  name: partial-strategy-sts
  namespace: default
spec:
  serviceName: partial-strategy-sts
  replicas: 3
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: nginx
  template:
    metadata:
      labels:
        app: nginx
    spec:
      containers:
      - name: nginx
        image: nginx:1.14.2
  updateStrategy:
    # type field missing
    rollingUpdate:
      partition: 0

The policy rejected this configuration, enforcing the explicit specification of the RollingUpdate type.

1. Case Sensitivity Test: We tested with variant capitalization to ensure robust validation:

apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: StatefulSet
metadata:
  name: case-sensitive-sts
  namespace: default
spec:
  serviceName: case-sensitive-sts
  replicas: 3
  # ... other fields ...
  updateStrategy:
    type: rollingupdate # lowercase instead of correct camelcase

The policy correctly rejected this configuration, enforcing the exact string matching required by Kubernetes.

4.4.3 Negative Testing Results

Our negative testing confirmed that both policies are robust against edge cases and potential misconfigurations:

Test Category	Test Case	Expected Result	Actual Result	Status
Time-based Quota	Malformed Time	Fallback to system time	Fallback occurred	PASSED
Time-based Quota	Concurrent Updates	Consistent application	No race conditions	PASSED
Time-based Quota	Timezone Edge	Correct timezone handling	Proper time calculation	PASSED
StatefulSet	Missing Strategy	Reject configuration	Rejected with message	PASSED
StatefulSet	Partial Strategy	Reject configuration	Rejected with message	PASSED
StatefulSet	Case Sensitivity	Reject incorrect casing	Rejected with message	PASSED

These negative tests demonstrate that both policies are resilient to typical edge cases and maintain their protective functions even under unexpected conditions. This level of robustness is crucial for policies that will be enforced in production environments where varied and sometimes invalid inputs are inevitable.

Discussion

5.1 Cost Optimization Implications

The schedule-based quota policy offers significant potential for cost savings in cloud environments. By analyzing actual usage patterns from a medium-sized production cluster, we can estimate the impact:

Time Period	Hours/Week	CPU Quota	Memory Quota	Relative Cost
Business Hours	40	20 cores	40Gi	100%
Non-Business Hours	128	10 cores	20Gi	50%
Weekly Average	168	12.38 cores	24.76Gi	61.9%

With this implementation, the average weekly resource allocation is approximately 61.9% of the peak allocation, translating to potential cloud cost savings of up to 38.1% for workloads that follow business-hour patterns.

The policy is particularly beneficial for:

• Development and staging environments
• Internal tools with predictable usage patterns
• Non-critical workloads that can operate with reduced resources

5.2 Reliability Implications

The StatefulSet update strategy policy addresses a common source of production incidents. By enforcing the RollingUpdate strategy, the policy prevents:

• Service Disruptions: Ensures pods are updated one at a time, maintaining service availability
• Data Inconsistencies: Maintains ordered updates to prevent data corruption
• Human Error: Eliminates misconfiguration risks during StatefulSet updates

This policy is especially valuable for:

• Database clusters (like MongoDB, PostgreSQL)
• Message brokers (like Kafka, RabbitMQ)
• Distributed caches (like Redis, Memcached) Any stateful application where ordering matters

6. Practical Implementation

6.1 Deployment Considerations

When implementing these policies in production environments, consider:

• Gradual Rollout: Start with audit mode before enforcing
• Exemptions: Create exceptions for critical workloads if needed
• Monitoring: Track policy violations to identify potential issues
• Communication: Ensure teams understand the policies and their rationale

6.2 Installation Steps
To install the policies:

# Install schedule-based quotas policy
kubectl apply -f https://raw.githubusercontent.com/kyverno/policies/main/cost-optimization/schedule-based-quotas/schedule-based-quotas.yaml

# Install StatefulSet update strategy policy
kubectl apply -f https://raw.githubusercontent.com/kyverno/policies/main/best-practices/statefulset-update-strategy/statefulset-update-strategy.yaml

6.3 Verification

Verify policy installation:

kubectl get clusterpolicies

Expected Output:

NAME                        BACKGROUND   ACTION
schedule-based-quotas       true         Audit
statefulset-update-strategy true         Enforce

7. Conclusion

This research demonstrates the effectiveness of Kyverno policies in addressing two critical operational challenges in Kubernetes environments: cost optimization and application reliability. The schedule-based quota policy provides a novel approach to dynamic resource allocation, potentially reducing cloud costs by automatically adjusting resource quotas based on time patterns. The StatefulSet update strategy policy ensures application reliability by enforcing safe update practices for stateful applications.

Both policies represent low-effort, high-impact solutions that integrate seamlessly with existing Kubernetes workflows. By implementing these policies, organizations can improve resource utilization, reduce operational costs, and enhance application reliability without significant development or administrative overhead.

Future work could explore additional dimensions of dynamic resource management, such as scaling based on actual utilization metrics or implementing more sophisticated time-based patterns. The policy-as-code approach demonstrated here provides a flexible foundation for addressing a wide range of operational challenges in Kubernetes environments.

References

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[2] Gartner. (2022). How to Manage and Optimize Costs in Public Cloud IaaS. Retrieved from https://www.gartner.com/en/documents/3982414

[3] Kubernetes Documentation. (2023). StatefulSets. Retrieved from https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/workloads/controllers/statefulset/

[4] Kyverno. (2023). Kyverno Documentation. Retrieved from https://kyverno.io/docs/

[5] Liu, Z., & Cho, S. (2022). Characterizing Machine Resource Usage for Job Co-location in Cloud-scale Datacenters. IEEE International Symposium on Workload Characterization (IISWC).

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[9] How the Adidas Platform Team Reduced the Cost of Running Kubernetes Clusters. Retrieved from https://www.infoq.com/news/2024/07/adidas-kubernetes-cost-reduction/

[10] Kubernetes policy driven resource optimization with Kyverno. Retrieved from https://www.cncf.io/blog/2024/09/03/kubernetes-policy-driven-resource-optimization-with-kyverno/