Complete Guide to JavaScript DOM Manipulation: Beginner to Pro

1. Introduction to DOM Manipulation

   • Definition and importance of the DOM
   • How JavaScript interacts with the DOM
   • Overview of common use cases

2. Understanding the DOM Tree

   • Structure of the DOM
   • Nodes and elements
   • DOM tree traversal

3. Selecting DOM Elements

   • Basic selectors (getElementById, getElementsByClassName, getElementsByTagName)
   • Modern selectors (querySelector, querySelectorAll)
   • Performance considerations with selectors

4. Manipulating Content

   • Modifying inner HTML and text content (innerHTML, innerText, textContent)
   • Safeguards against XSS attacks
   • Working with HTML attributes (setAttribute, getAttribute, removeAttribute)

5. Styling and Classes

   • Changing inline styles
   • Using classList for dynamic styling
   • Advantages of CSS classes over inline styles

6. Event Handling

   • Basics of event listeners (addEventListener, removeEventListener)
   • Common events (click, mouseover, keypress, etc.)
   • Event delegation
   • Event propagation and preventing default actions

7. Advanced DOM Manipulation

   • Creating and inserting elements (createElement, appendChild, insertBefore)
   • Cloning and removing elements
   • Working with document fragments for efficiency

8. Form Handling and Validation

   • Accessing form elements and values
   • Validating user input
   • Handling form submissions

9. Working with Complex Structures

   • Manipulating tables
   • Handling lists and tree structures
   • Dynamic content generation

10. Animation and Transition Effects

    • Basic concepts of animations in the DOM
    • Using CSS transitions
    • JavaScript-driven animations

11. Best Practices and Performance Optimization

    • Minimizing reflows and repaints
    • Efficiently handling large DOMs
    • Using requestAnimationFrame for smooth animations

12. Common Pitfalls and Debugging

    • Common mistakes in DOM manipulation
    • Debugging techniques and tools

13. Case Studies and Practical Examples

    • Real-world examples of DOM manipulation
    • Step-by-step walkthroughs of building dynamic web components

14. Future Trends and Considerations

    • The evolving landscape of web development
    • The impact of frameworks like React, Vue, and Angular on DOM manipulation

15. Conclusion

    • Summary of key concepts
    • The importance of mastering DOM manipulation for modern web development

---

1. Introduction to DOM Manipulation

The Document Object Model (DOM) serves as a foundational concept in web development, acting as a bridge between HTML documents and JavaScript. The DOM represents the structure of a web page as a hierarchical tree of nodes, allowing developers to access and manipulate the content, structure, and styles of the page programmatically. This capability enables the creation of dynamic and interactive web experiences, where the content can be updated in real-time based on user actions or other stimuli.

JavaScript, the language of the web, plays a crucial role in DOM manipulation. By providing a rich set of APIs, JavaScript allows developers to perform a wide range of operations on the DOM, from simple content updates to complex interactive features. Understanding how to leverage these APIs effectively is essential for any web developer, as it opens the door to creating more engaging and user-friendly websites.

In this comprehensive guide, we will explore the ins and outs of JavaScript DOM manipulation, covering everything from basic concepts to advanced techniques. Whether you're a beginner looking to understand the fundamentals or an experienced developer seeking to refine your skills, this guide will provide you with the knowledge and tools needed to master DOM manipulation.

2. Understanding the DOM Tree

The DOM tree is a hierarchical representation of the elements on a web page. At the top of this tree is the document object, which serves as the root node. Below the document object, there are various types of nodes, including element nodes, text nodes, comment nodes, and more. Each of these nodes represents a specific part of the document, such as an HTML tag, a block of text, or a comment.

Nodes and Elements

In the DOM, every piece of content is represented as a node. The most common types of nodes include:

• Element Nodes: These are the most important nodes, representing HTML elements like <div>, <p>, <a>, etc. Each element node can have attributes, child nodes, and text content.
• Text Nodes: These nodes represent the text content within elements. For example, in the HTML <p>Hello, World!</p>, the text "Hello, World!" is a text node inside a paragraph element node.
• Attribute Nodes: These nodes represent the attributes of an element. For example, in <a href="https://example.com">Link</a>, the href attribute is represented as an attribute node.

DOM Tree Traversal

To manipulate the DOM effectively, it's crucial to understand how to traverse the DOM tree. Traversal refers to navigating through the nodes in the DOM tree to find specific elements or groups of elements. JavaScript provides several methods for this purpose:

• Parent Node: The parentNode property returns the parent of a given node.

  const parent = childNode.parentNode;

• Child Nodes: The childNodes property returns a NodeList of a node's child nodes.

  const children = parentNode.childNodes;

• First and Last Child: The firstChild and lastChild properties return the first and last child nodes of a parent, respectively.

  const firstChild = parentNode.firstChild;
  const lastChild = parentNode.lastChild;

• Next and Previous Sibling: The nextSibling and previousSibling properties return the next and previous siblings of a node, respectively.

  const nextSibling = node.nextSibling;
  const previousSibling = node.previousSibling;

By understanding and utilizing these properties, developers can efficiently navigate and manipulate the DOM tree.

3. Selecting DOM Elements

Selecting elements is the first step in any DOM manipulation task. JavaScript provides a variety of methods for selecting elements, each with its own use cases and advantages.

Basic Selectors

• getElementById: This method selects a single element by its unique ID. Since IDs are unique within a document, this method returns only one element.

  const element = document.getElementById('myElement');

• getElementsByClassName: This method selects all elements with a given class name and returns an HTMLCollection. Unlike getElementById, this method can return multiple elements.

  const elements = document.getElementsByClassName('myClass');

• getElementsByTagName: This method selects all elements with a given tag name, such as div, p, or a, and returns an HTMLCollection.

  const elements = document.getElementsByTagName('p');

Modern Selectors

Modern web development often uses querySelector and querySelectorAll for more flexible and powerful element selection.

• querySelector: This method returns the first element that matches a specified CSS selector. It can be used to select elements based on IDs, classes, attributes, and more.

  const element = document.querySelector('.myClass');

• querySelectorAll: This method returns all elements that match a specified CSS selector, returning a NodeList. Unlike HTMLCollections, NodeLists can be iterated over using modern array methods like forEach.

  const elements = document.querySelectorAll('.myClass');

Performance Considerations with Selectors

When selecting elements, especially in large documents, performance can become a concern. It's important to use the most efficient method for the task at hand. For instance, getElementById is generally faster than querySelector when selecting by ID because it's optimized for that specific task. Similarly, limiting the scope of your search by selecting elements within a specific parent node can reduce the time needed to find elements.

4. Manipulating Content

Once you've selected the elements you want to manipulate, you can modify their content using various properties and methods.

Modifying Inner HTML and Text Content

• innerHTML: This property sets or returns the HTML content of an element. It's useful for dynamically updating the structure of a web page, as it can insert new elements along with text.

  element.innerHTML = '<strong>New Content</strong>';

• innerText: This property sets or returns the text content of an element, excluding any HTML tags. It's useful when you want to update the visible text without affecting the underlying structure.

  element.innerText = 'New Content';

• textContent: Similar to innerText, this property sets or returns the text content of an element. However, textContent is more consistent across different browsers and also includes hidden elements' text.

  element

.textContent = 'New Content';

Safeguards Against XSS Attacks

When using innerHTML, it's crucial to be aware of potential security risks, particularly Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) attacks. XSS occurs when an attacker injects malicious scripts into web pages, potentially compromising user data and security. To mitigate this risk, avoid using innerHTML with unsanitized user input. Instead, use safer alternatives like textContent or sanitization libraries.

Working with HTML Attributes

HTML attributes provide additional information about elements and can be manipulated using JavaScript.

• setAttribute: This method adds a new attribute or changes the value of an existing attribute.

  element.setAttribute('src', 'image.jpg');

• getAttribute: This method returns the value of an attribute.

  const src = element.getAttribute('src');

• removeAttribute: This method removes an attribute from an element.

  element.removeAttribute('src');

By manipulating attributes, developers can change the behavior and appearance of elements dynamically.

5. Styling and Classes

Styling elements dynamically is a common requirement in web development. JavaScript provides several ways to manipulate the styles and classes of elements.

Changing Inline Styles

You can change the inline styles of an element using the style property. Each CSS property can be accessed as a property of the style object, using camelCase for multi-word properties.

element.style.color = 'blue';
element.style.backgroundColor = 'yellow';

While changing inline styles can be useful for specific cases, it's generally better to use CSS classes for styling. This approach keeps your CSS and JavaScript separate, making your code more maintainable and easier to manage.

Using classList for Dynamic Styling

The classList property provides a convenient way to work with an element's class attribute. It offers methods to add, remove, toggle, and check for classes, making it a powerful tool for dynamic styling.

• Adding a Class:

  element.classList.add('newClass');

• Removing a Class:

  element.classList.remove('oldClass');

• Toggling a Class:

  element.classList.toggle('active');

• Checking for a Class:

  if (element.classList.contains('active')) {
    // Do something
  }

Using classList is generally preferable to directly manipulating the className property, as it avoids issues with overwriting existing classes and simplifies code.

Advantages of CSS Classes over Inline Styles

Using CSS classes instead of inline styles has several advantages:

1. Separation of Concerns: CSS classes separate styling from content, making it easier to maintain and update styles without touching the HTML structure.
2. Reusability: CSS classes can be reused across multiple elements, promoting consistency and reducing duplication.
3. Efficiency: Changing classes is more efficient than updating multiple inline styles, as it reduces the number of DOM updates and minimizes reflows and repaints.

6. Event Handling

Events are a core concept in web development, allowing developers to respond to user interactions, such as clicks, key presses, and form submissions. JavaScript provides a robust event handling system to manage these interactions.

Basics of Event Listeners

An event listener is a function that runs in response to a specific event on an element. The addEventListener method is used to attach event listeners to elements.

element.addEventListener('click', function() {
  alert('Element clicked!');
});

The first argument to addEventListener is the event type (e.g., 'click'), and the second argument is the callback function that runs when the event occurs.

Common Events

• Click Event: Triggered when an element is clicked.

  element.addEventListener('click', function() {
    // Handle click event
  });

• Mouse Events: Include events like mouseover, mouseout, and mousemove.

  element.addEventListener('mouseover', function() {
    // Handle mouseover event
  });

• Keyboard Events: Include events like keydown, keyup, and keypress.

  document.addEventListener('keydown', function(event) {
    console.log(`Key pressed: ${event.key}`);
  });

• Form Events: Include events like submit, change, and input.

  form.addEventListener('submit', function(event) {
    event.preventDefault(); // Prevent form submission
    // Handle form submission
  });

Event Delegation

Event delegation is a technique for handling events efficiently by leveraging event propagation. Instead of attaching event listeners to each individual child element, you attach a single event listener to a common parent element. This listener can then handle events for all child elements based on the event's target.

document.querySelector('.parent').addEventListener('click', function(event) {
  if (event.target && event.target.matches('.child')) {
    // Handle click event on child element
  }
});

Event delegation is particularly useful when dealing with dynamically added elements, as it avoids the need to attach event listeners to each new element.

Event Propagation and Preventing Default Actions

Events in the DOM propagate through three phases: the capturing phase, the target phase, and the bubbling phase. By default, event listeners are registered in the bubbling phase, but you can specify the capturing phase by passing true as the third argument to addEventListener.

element.addEventListener('click', function() {
  // Handle click event
}, true); // Use capturing phase

To stop an event from propagating, you can use the stopPropagation method.

element.addEventListener('click', function(event) {
  event.stopPropagation();
});

Additionally, to prevent the default action associated with an event (such as navigating to a link or submitting a form), use the preventDefault method.

element.addEventListener('click', function(event) {
  event.preventDefault();
  // Prevent link from navigating
});

7. Advanced DOM Manipulation

Beyond basic manipulation, JavaScript allows for more complex and advanced DOM operations, such as creating and removing elements, cloning nodes, and optimizing performance.

Creating and Inserting Elements

Creating new elements and adding them to the DOM is a common requirement in dynamic web applications. The document.createElement method creates a new element node.

const newElement = document.createElement('div');
newElement.textContent = 'Hello, World!';

Once you've created an element, you can insert it into the DOM using methods like appendChild and insertBefore.

• Appending Elements:

  document.body.appendChild(newElement);

• Inserting Before Another Element:

  const referenceElement = document.getElementById('myElement');
  document.body.insertBefore(newElement, referenceElement);

Cloning and Removing Elements

JavaScript allows you to clone existing DOM nodes, creating a copy that can be modified or inserted elsewhere.

• Cloning an Element:

  const clone = element.cloneNode(true); // true for deep clone
  document.body.appendChild(clone);

To remove elements, you can use the removeChild or remove methods.

• Removing Child Elements:

  const parent = document.getElementById('parentElement');
  const child = document.getElementById('childElement');
  parent.removeChild(child);

• Using remove Method:

  const element = document.getElementById('myElement');
  element.remove();

Working with Document Fragments for Efficiency

Document fragments are lightweight containers that can hold a portion of the DOM structure. They are not part of the live DOM tree, which means operations performed on them do not trigger reflows and repaints, making them highly efficient for batch DOM updates.

const fragment = document.createDocumentFragment();
const newElement1 = document.createElement('div');
newElement1.textContent = 'Item 1';
fragment.appendChild(newElement1);

const newElement2 = document.createElement('div');
newElement2.textContent = 'Item 2';
fragment.appendChild(newElement2);

document.body.appendChild(fragment); // Append all elements at once

Using document fragments is a best practice when adding multiple elements to the DOM, as it minimizes performance costs.

8. Form Handling and Validation

Forms are a fundamental part of web applications, enabling user input and interaction. JavaScript provides powerful tools for accessing form elements, handling their values, and validating input before submission.

Accessing Form Elements and Values

Form elements can be accessed using the same selectors as other DOM elements. Once selected, their values can be retrieved or set using the value property.

const input = document.getElementById('myInput');
const inputValue = input.value;

input.value = 'New Value'; // Set a new value

For forms with multiple elements, you can iterate through the form's elements collection.

const form = document.getElementById('myForm');
for (let i = 0; i < form.elements.length; i++) {
  console.log(form.elements[i].name, form.elements[i].value);
}

Validating User Input

Validation ensures that the data entered by users meets certain criteria before it is submitted. JavaScript can perform client-side validation, providing instant feedback to users and reducing server load.

• Basic Validation:

  const input = document.getElementById('myInput');
  if (input.value === '') {
    alert('This field is required.');
  }

• Regular Expressions: Regular expressions can be used for more complex validation, such as checking email formats or password strength.

  const email = document.getElementById('email');
  const emailPattern = /^[^\s@]+@[^\s@]+\.[^\s@]+$/;
  if (!emailPattern.test(email.value)) {
    alert('Please enter a valid email address.');
  }

Handling Form Submissions

To handle form submissions, you can attach an event listener to the form's submit event. This allows you to prevent the default submission and perform custom actions, such as validation or AJAX submissions.

const form = document.getElementById('myForm');
form.addEventListener('submit', function(event) {
  event.preventDefault(); // Prevent default form submission

  // Custom validation and submission logic
  if (isValidForm()) {
    // Submit form data via AJAX or other means
  }
});

function isValidForm() {
  // Perform validation and return true or false
  return true;
}

9. Working with Complex Structures

Handling complex structures like tables, lists, and tree-like structures requires specific techniques and considerations. JavaScript provides a range of methods and best practices for working with these elements.

Manipulating Tables

Tables are a common way to display data in a structured format. JavaScript allows you to create, modify, and manipulate tables dynamically.

• Creating Table Elements:

  const table = document.createElement('table');
  const row = table.insertRow();
  const cell1 = row.insertCell();
  const cell2 = row.insertCell();
  cell1.textContent = 'Row 1, Cell 1';
  cell2.textContent = 'Row 1, Cell 2';
  document.body.appendChild(table);

• Adding and Removing Rows:

  const table = document.getElementById('myTable');
  const newRow = table.insertRow();
  newRow.insertCell().textContent = 'New Cell';

  table.deleteRow(0); // Delete the first row

Handling Lists and Tree Structures

Lists and tree structures are often used for navigation menus, file explorers, and hierarchical data. JavaScript allows for the creation and manipulation of these structures.

• Creating Lists:

  const list = document.createElement('ul');
  const listItem = document.createElement('li');
  listItem.textContent = 'Item 1';
  list.appendChild(listItem);
  document.body.appendChild(list);

• Manipulating List Items:

  const list = document.getElementById('myList');
  const newItem = document.createElement('li');
  newItem.textContent = 'New Item';
  list.appendChild(newItem);

  list.removeChild(list.firstChild); // Remove the first item

Dynamic Content Generation

Dynamic content generation involves creating and updating content based on user interactions or other data sources. This technique is commonly used in applications like dashboards, data visualizations, and content management systems.

• Generating Content Based on Data:

  const data = ['Item 1', 'Item 2', 'Item 3'];
  const list = document.createElement('ul');

  data.forEach(item => {
    const listItem = document.createElement('li');
    listItem.textContent = item;
    list.appendChild(listItem);
  });

  document.body.appendChild(list);

Dynamic content generation often involves working with APIs, where data is fetched from a server and displayed on the page.

10. Animation and Transition Effects

Animations and transitions add visual appeal and enhance the user experience. JavaScript, in conjunction with CSS, allows for the creation of smooth and engaging animations.

Basic Concepts of Animations in the DOM

Animations can be created using CSS animations or JavaScript. CSS animations are defined in stylesheets, while JavaScript provides more control and flexibility.

• CSS Animations:

  @keyframes fadeIn {
    from { opacity: 0; }
    to { opacity: 1; }
  }

  .fade-in {
    animation: fadeIn 2s;
  }

• JavaScript Animations:

  const element = document.getElementById('animateMe');
  let opacity = 0;

  function fadeIn() {
    opacity += 0.01;
    element.style.opacity = opacity;

    if (opacity < 1) {
      requestAnimationFrame(fadeIn);
    }
  }

  fadeIn();

Using CSS Transitions

CSS transitions allow you to change property values smoothly over a specified duration.

• Defining Transitions:

  .box {
    transition: transform 0.5s, opacity 0.5s;
  }

  .box:hover {
    transform: scale(1.2);
    opacity: 0.7;
  }

CSS transitions are easy to implement and can be triggered by pseudo-classes like :hover or by JavaScript class changes.

JavaScript-Driven Animations

JavaScript provides fine-grained control over animations, allowing for complex and interactive effects.

• Animating with setInterval:

  let position = 0;
  const element = document.getElementById('movingBox');

  setInterval(() => {
    position += 1;
    element.style.transform = `translateX(${position}px)`;
  }, 10);

• Using requestAnimationFrame:

  let position = 0;
  const element = document.getElementById('movingBox');

  function animate() {
    position += 1;
    element.style.transform = `translateX(${position}px)`;

    if (position < 300) {
      requestAnimationFrame(animate);
    }
  }

  animate();

requestAnimationFrame is preferred over setInterval for animations, as it synchronizes with the browser's refresh rate, resulting in smoother animations.

11. Best Practices and Performance Optimization

Efficient DOM manipulation is crucial for maintaining performance, especially in large and complex applications. Following best practices can help ensure that your applications run smoothly.

Minimizing Reflows and Repaints

Reflows and repaints are costly operations in the browser's rendering process. A reflow occurs when the layout of the page is recalculated, while a repaint is triggered when visual changes occur.

• Avoid Frequent DOM Manipulations: Batch DOM updates to minimize reflows. For example, use document.createDocumentFragment or temporarily hide elements while making changes.

• Use Efficient Selectors: Be mindful of the performance implications of complex selectors. Prefer getElementById over more general selectors when possible.

• Avoid Layout Thrashing: Reading and writing layout properties (like offsetWidth and offsetHeight) in quick succession can cause layout thrashing, leading to multiple reflows. Avoid this by caching values when possible.

Efficiently Handling Large DOMs

Large DOMs can slow down rendering and interactions. To optimize performance:

• Use Virtualization: For large datasets, consider using virtualization techniques to render only a portion of the DOM, loading more content as needed.

• Lazy Load Images: Defer the loading of off-screen images until they are needed, reducing the initial load time.

Using requestAnimationFrame for Smooth Animations

As mentioned earlier, requestAnimationFrame is the preferred method for creating smooth animations. It synchronizes with the display refresh rate, resulting in more efficient animations.

function animate() {
  // Animation logic
  requestAnimationFrame(animate);
}

animate();

12. Common Pitfalls and Debugging

While DOM manipulation is a powerful tool, it comes with potential pitfalls. Understanding common mistakes and knowing how to debug issues can save time and effort.

Common Mistakes in DOM Manipulation

• Overuse of innerHTML: Using innerHTML excessively can lead to security vulnerabilities (XSS attacks) and performance issues. Use it cautiously and prefer safer alternatives like textContent or classList.

• Ignoring Event Delegation: Attaching event listeners to many individual elements can lead to memory leaks and poor performance. Use event delegation to handle events more efficiently.

• Forgetting to Clean Up: When dynamically adding elements, don't forget to remove them when they're no longer needed to avoid memory leaks.

Debugging Techniques and Tools

• Browser Developer Tools: Modern browsers offer robust developer tools for inspecting the DOM, debugging JavaScript, and analyzing performance. Use these tools to inspect elements, set breakpoints, and monitor network requests.

• Console Logging: Use console.log and other console methods to output information and debug your code. For more advanced debugging, use console.dir to inspect objects and console.table to display data in a tabular format.

• Debugging DOM Events: Use the Event Listeners tab in browser developer tools to inspect attached event listeners. This helps in understanding which events are attached to which elements.

13. Case Studies and Practical Examples

To solidify your understanding of DOM manipulation, let's explore some real

-world examples and case studies.

Example 1: Interactive To-Do List

An interactive to-do list allows users to add, remove, and mark tasks as complete. This example involves dynamic content generation, event handling, and form validation.

document.getElementById('addTaskButton').addEventListener('click', function() {
  const taskInput = document.getElementById('taskInput');
  const taskText = taskInput.value;

  if (taskText) {
    const taskList = document.getElementById('taskList');
    const newTask = document.createElement('li');
    newTask.textContent = taskText;
    taskList.appendChild(newTask);

    taskInput.value = ''; // Clear the input field
  }
});

Example 2: Image Gallery with Lightbox Effect

An image gallery with a lightbox effect allows users to click on thumbnails to view larger images. This example demonstrates event delegation and CSS transitions.

document.getElementById('gallery').addEventListener('click', function(event) {
  if (event.target.tagName === 'IMG') {
    const src = event.target.getAttribute('data-fullsize');
    const lightbox = document.getElementById('lightbox');
    lightbox.querySelector('img').src = src;
    lightbox.style.display = 'block';
  }
});

document.getElementById('lightbox').addEventListener('click', function() {
  this.style.display = 'none';
});

Example 3: Dynamic Data Visualization

A dynamic data visualization, such as a chart or graph, updates based on user input or data changes. This example involves dynamic content generation and efficient DOM manipulation.

function updateChart(data) {
  const chart = document.getElementById('chart');
  chart.innerHTML = ''; // Clear existing chart

  data.forEach(point => {
    const bar = document.createElement('div');
    bar.className = 'bar';
    bar.style.height = `${point.value}px`;
    chart.appendChild(bar);
  });
}

const data = [{ value: 30 }, { value: 50 }, { value: 80 }];
updateChart(data);

14. Summary and Best Practices

In this comprehensive guide, we've explored the essential aspects of DOM manipulation with JavaScript, from basic concepts to advanced techniques. Here are some key takeaways:

• Understanding the DOM: The DOM represents the structure of a web page, allowing JavaScript to interact with and manipulate elements.

• Selecting and Manipulating Elements: Use efficient selectors and methods like textContent and classList for safe and efficient manipulation.

• Event Handling: Attach event listeners using addEventListener, leverage event delegation for efficiency, and understand event propagation.

• Form Handling and Validation: Access form elements, validate input, and handle form submissions to enhance user interaction and data integrity.

• Advanced Techniques: Use document fragments for efficient DOM updates, handle complex structures like tables and lists, and create smooth animations with requestAnimationFrame.

• Performance Optimization: Minimize reflows and repaints, handle large DOMs efficiently, and follow best practices to ensure optimal performance.

• Common Pitfalls and Debugging: Avoid common mistakes, use browser developer tools for debugging, and implement best practices to maintain code quality.

By mastering these concepts and techniques, you'll be well-equipped to create dynamic, interactive, and performant web applications. Keep experimenting, learning, and building to refine your skills in DOM manipulation.

15. Further Resources

To continue your journey in DOM manipulation and web development, consider exploring the following resources:

• MDN Web Docs: Comprehensive documentation and tutorials on web technologies, including the DOM, JavaScript, and more.
• JavaScript Info: A detailed guide to modern JavaScript, covering core concepts, best practices, and advanced topics.
• You Don't Know JS: A book series that dives deep into the core mechanisms of JavaScript, helping you understand the language at a fundamental level.

Happy coding!

---

💰 You can help me by Donating