The Complete C++ Programming Language Guide

C++ is one of the most powerful, complex, and performance-critical programming languages ever created. It is used to build operating systems, game engines, compilers, browsers, databases, embedded systems, financial trading engines, and high-performance backend services.

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1. What Is C++?

C++ is:

• A compiled
• Statically typed

• Multi-paradigm language:

  • Procedural
  • Object-oriented
  • Generic
  • Functional (partial)

• A superset of C

• A zero-cost abstraction language

“What you don’t use, you don’t pay for.”

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2. C++ Language Architecture

C++ architecture operates on three layers:

2.1 Source Code Layer

• .cpp → implementation
• .h / .hpp → declarations

2.2 Compilation Pipeline

1. Preprocessor
2. Compiler
3. Assembler
4. Linker

2.3 Runtime Layer

• Stack
• Heap
• Static storage
• Registers
• OS interaction

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3. C++ Compilation Model (Internal)

main.cpp
   ↓
Preprocessor
   ↓
Compiler
   ↓
Assembler
   ↓
Object Files (.o)
   ↓
Linker
   ↓
Executable

3.1 Preprocessor

Handles:

• #include
• #define
• #ifdef
• #pragma

#define PI 3.14
#include <iostream>

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4. C++ Memory Model (Internal Architecture)

4.1 Memory Segments

Segment	Purpose
Stack	Local variables
Heap	Dynamic memory
Data	Global/static variables
Text	Program instructions
Registers	CPU-level storage

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5. Basic C++ Program Structure

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
    cout << "Hello, C++";
    return 0;
}

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6. Data Types (Complete)

6.1 Fundamental Types

int
float
double
char
bool
void

6.2 Modifiers

short int
long int
long long int
unsigned int

6.3 Fixed Width Types

#include <cstdint>
int8_t
int16_t
int32_t
int64_t

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7. Variables and Constants

int x = 10;
const int y = 20;
constexpr int z = 30;

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8. Operators (All Categories)

Arithmetic

+, -, *, /, %

Relational

==, !=, <, >, <=, >=

Logical

&&, ||, !

Bitwise

&, |, ^, ~, <<, >>

Assignment

=, +=, -=, *=, /=

Others

sizeof, typeid, ?:, new, delete

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9. Control Flow

9.1 Conditionals

if (x > 0) {}
else {}

switch (x) {
    case 1: break;
    default: break;
}

9.2 Loops

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {}
while (true) {}
do {} while(false);

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10. Functions (Complete)

int add(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;
}

Function Overloading

int add(int a, int b);
double add(double a, double b);

Inline Functions

inline int square(int x) { return x*x; }

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11. Arrays and Strings

Arrays

int arr[5] = {1,2,3,4,5};

C-Style Strings

char str[] = "Hello";

std::string

#include <string>
string name = "C++";

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12. Pointers and References (Core of C++)

int x = 10;
int* p = &x;

int& ref = x;

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13. Dynamic Memory Management

int* p = new int(10);
delete p;

int* arr = new int[5];
delete[] arr;

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14. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

14.1 Classes

class Car {
public:
    int speed;
    void drive() {}
};

14.2 Constructors / Destructors

Car() {}
~Car() {}

14.3 Encapsulation

private:
    int engine;

14.4 Inheritance

class ElectricCar : public Car {};

14.5 Polymorphism

virtual void drive();

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15. Virtual Functions and vtable (Internal)

• Enables runtime dispatch
• Implemented via vtable
• One vptr per object

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16. Templates (Generic Programming)

Function Template

template<typename T>
T add(T a, T b) {
    return a + b;
}

Class Template

template<class T>
class Box {
    T value;
};

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17. STL (Standard Template Library)

Containers

• vector
• list
• deque
• map
• unordered_map
• set
• queue
• stack

vector<int> v = {1,2,3};

Algorithms

sort(v.begin(), v.end());

Iterators

for(auto it = v.begin(); it != v.end(); it++) {}

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18. Lambdas (Modern C++)

auto sum = [](int a, int b) {
    return a + b;
};

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19. Smart Pointers

unique_ptr

unique_ptr<int> p = make_unique<int>(10);

shared_ptr

shared_ptr<int> p1 = make_shared<int>(20);

weak_ptr

weak_ptr<int> wp;

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20. RAII (Core C++ Philosophy)

Resource Acquisition Is Initialization

class File {
    FILE* f;
public:
    File() { f = fopen("a.txt", "r"); }
    ~File() { fclose(f); }
};

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21. Exception Handling

try {
    throw runtime_error("Error");
}
catch (exception& e) {
    cout << e.what();
}

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22. Namespaces

namespace math {
    int add(int a, int b);
}

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23. Multithreading

#include <thread>

void work() {}
thread t(work);
t.join();

Mutex

mutex m;
lock_guard<mutex> lock(m);

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24. File Handling

#include <fstream>

ofstream file("a.txt");
file << "Hello";
file.close();

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25. C++ ABI and Object Layout (Internal)

• Name mangling
• Stack alignment
• Calling conventions
• vtable layout
• Padding & alignment

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26. Modern C++ Features

Move Semantics

MyClass(MyClass&& other);

constexpr

constexpr int square(int x) { return x*x; }

auto

auto x = 10;

Range-based loop

for (auto& x : v) {}

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27. C++ Standards Overview

Standard	Key Features
C++98	Base
C++11	Modern C++
C++14	Improvements
C++17	Structured bindings
C++20	Concepts, coroutines
C++23	Refinements

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28. Where C++ Is Used

• Game Engines (Unreal)
• OS Kernels
• Browsers
• Databases
• Embedded Systems
• High-frequency trading
• AI frameworks (backend)

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29. Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths

• Maximum performance
• Full hardware control
• Mature ecosystem

Weaknesses

• Complex
• Long compile times
• Steep learning curve

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30. Final Thoughts

C++ is not just a language, it is a system-level toolkit. Mastering C++ means mastering:

• Memory
• CPU behavior
• Object layout
• Performance engineering

If you truly understand C++, every other language becomes easier.